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Class. 
Book. 



Gopyiightl^^ 



COFk'RIGirr DEPOSIT. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

BY 

PARALLELISM AND 
COMPARISON 



BY 

G. W. Henderson, M. D. 



COLUMBUS, OHIO 

H. H. HENDERSON, Publisher 

1910 



^:> 



Copyrighted in the Year 1910 

BY 

H. H. Henderson 



THE HANN 4 ADAIR PRINTING CO., COLUMBUS, OHIO 



©CI.A2685i2 



PREFACE. 



There is an assumption involved in every case of in- 
duction that what is true in any one case is true in all oases 
of a certain description ; and that what happens once will, 
under a sufficient degree of similarity, happen again and 
not only again, but as often as the parallel circumstances 
occur. 

This simple method of induction, parallelism and com- 
parison, fully demonstrated in grammar has its advantages 
over other methods of today. 

Every teacher knows that one part of speech can not 
be fully understood until all the piarts of speech are under- 
stood; and that all the parts of speech can not be fully 
understood until all the elements, words, clauses, and 
phrases are understood. By p'airallelism and comparison 
the teacher isolates the lattention of pupils upon the lan- 
guage itself. They see the constant parallelism in the 
various uses of elements and by it proceed in groups, and 
in leaps and bounds to definite conclusions. 

Some of the more or less distinguishing features of 
English G-rammar by parallelism and comparison are these : 
It lays down a working basis. It teaches the parallelism of 
clauses and phrases to single parts of speech at the same 
time that it discusses these parts of speech. It bring-s all 
the facts of grammar in connection with a general law. 
Flacts are never stupid things when -the law that governs 
them is once discovered. Analysis and synthesis is taught 
throughout, closing with analysis completed. The power 
of recall is regularly tested. Comparisons are made fully 
and frequently. Parallelism of the uses of verbs, direct 

[3] 



4 PREFACE. 

and indirect objects, and clauses and phrases. Case is 
considered first in importance as a property of noun ele- 
ments. A new classification of clause elements. A new 
idea on nouns and pronouns by direct address and pleo- 
nasm. Participles and infinitives by parallelism are made 
plain and simple. Relative pronouns never connect. The 
shifting use of words is considered in a new light. Inde- 
pendent elements are independently considered. Equiva- 
lent terms and expressions clear up the confusion of terms. 
The connective idea is scientifically discussed. Relative 
and conjunctive adverbs are things of the past. There are 
no subordina/te connectives. All of its teachings are fully 
abreast of the times. It does not teach orthography, higher 
composition or rhetoric, but grammar pure and simple. It 
makes possible mental discipline and mental pleasure, and 
so insures enjoyment in the study of this troublesome and 
frequently misunderstood science. A correct knowledge of 
English is no longer to be looked for in other languages. 
Archaic forms may sometimes account for a usage but can 
never control it. 

To have a clear knowledge of the parallel and equiva- 
lent uses and value of the elements of the English sentence 
is a function of (xrammar far beyond the ordinary cen- 
surable improprieties or violations of usage. This gram- 
mar, the language and arrangement of which goes far 
enough to constitute a complete grammar for undergrad- 
uates of any School, is presented to him or her who believes 
that the whole aim of science is to link facts to facts, to 
understand each other, to learn. 



Columbus, 0., March 7th, 1910. 



TO TEACHERS. 



Memory depends for the most part on the sort of mental 
imagery a pupil naturally employs the most. He may receive his 
best impressions by visual imagery and other impressions by audi- 
tory imagery, and still others by motor imagery; or he may employ 
verbal imagery by which he does not recall the object at all, but the 
printed symbol of that object in either visual, auditory or motor 
terms. It is clear that if a teacher always knew what is the best 
method by which a pupil could memorize more beneficial results 
would follow; and no methods of the learner should be overlooked. 

Every pupil has more or less practical experience with words, 
clauses and phrases before he begins the study of grammar. He 
has learned how to use the nouns father, mother, brother, sister, 
head, hat, etc. He knows how to use the verbs run, jump, sleep, 
walk, work, look and hundreds of other words, and even clauses 
and phrases, from simple practical experience just as he learns that 
the sun shines, that bodies fall, or that water quenches thirst. He 
has no means of extending these inductions except by similar or 
like inductions, or by the occurrence of parallel circumstances. In 
short, by parallelism and comparison. This method of gaining 
knowledge is consciously or unconsciously used throughout our 
lives. We understand thousands of facts by means of hundreds 
of other facts that we never fully comprehend. 

To think accurately and abstractly the schools are now evi- 
dently training in the direction of verbal imagery. While we are all 
enthusiastic that this is right, it miakes a difference just what sort 
of mental imagery a pupil naturally employs the most. 

And what uses should be made of the power of recall? The 
difference between learning and recall differs greatly as to the length 
of time in different pupils. Do not all students show a greater re- 
ceptivity between the time they are given anything to learn and the 
time to recall it by being active mentally and physically?. And do 
not some pupils learn readily orally while writing seems a great 
distraction to them? Do not others learn more readily if allowed 
to write what they wish to memorize? 

And what uses shall be made of the power of suggestion? Is 

[5] 



6 TO TEACHERS. 

the whole thing to be learned by the pupil to be given at once? Is 
he to study one part, then the next and so on ? Is it better to learn 
a part and recall it, and then to learn another part and recall it, and 
so on, until all can be recalled? Is it not a fact that some parts of 
every science, including English grammar, are easily mastered by 
some pupils, and other parts by other pupils? Is it not an advantage 
then to go over the whole subject, first in a consecutive manner until 
the more easily acquired part is mastered, and then finish in learning 
the parts that seem difficult to the student, and finally to review the 
whole consecutively again? 

This method has been thoroughly tried and demonstrated to 
be capable of bringing the greatest provable results in the shortest 
length of time, and is especially applicable in the study of English 
grammar. The mental imageries and impressions of parallelism and 
comparison come into the pupil's mind in a most natural and 
pleasing manner. We ofifer these few suggestions simply to recall 
to teachers not particularly something new, but some things perhaps 
forgotten or overlooked. 

Furthermore, by analysis we constantly emphasize the parallel- 
ism and comparison of the uses of clause elements and phrase ele- 
ments to the uses of parts of speech elements. •" ^^ ^ 

By practice in equivalent terms and expressions of clauses, 
phrases, participles, and especially in their uses as nouns, adjectives 
oradverbs, the confusion of students is rapidly overcome in the 
study of grammar. 

Make frequent uses of parallel thoughts and helpful statements. 
See Helpful Statement. Article 352, Exercises 25. 



THE WORKING BASIS. 



The working hasis is a classification of the basic truths 
and well established teachings of the relations and uses of 
the elements of the English sentence as it is today. 

The student who studies this grammatr for the first 
time should use the working basis mainly for reference. It 
should be his aim in consecutive review to fix firmly in his 
mind the basic truths upon which to build, and thus to 
unify and make plain the entire study of the English 
sentence. 

1. There are eight Parts of Speech in the English 
language. Four of these parts of speech are modifying 
elements >and four are not. 

2. The Four Modifying Elements are: Nouns, Pro- 
nouns, Adjectives and Adverbs. 

USES OF MODIFYING ELEMENTS. 

3. All modifying elements have three parallel uses. 
They :are nouns, adjectives or adverl^s. 

4. Nouns are always used as subject, attribute, object, 
appositive, or possessive. 

5. Nouns are paralleled in use by pronouns, noun 
clauses, noun phrases or noun participles. 

6. Pronouns are always used as subject, attribute, ob- 
ject, appositive, or possessive. 

7. Noun Clauses are always used as subject, attri- 
bute, object, or appositive. 

8. Noun Phrases are always used as subject, attri- 
bute, object or appositive. 

[7] 



8 THE WORKING BASIS. 

9. Noun Participles are always used as subject, at- 
tribute, object or appositive. 

10. Adjectives are always used as adjective elements. 
They are paralleled in use by nouns and pronouns in the 
possessive case, by adjective clauses, adjective phrases, and 
adjective participles. 

11. Adverbs are always adverbial elements. They are 
paralleled in use by adverbial clauses and adverbial 



12. Any word, clause or phrase used as subject, attri- 
bute, object or appositive parallels in its use a noun, and 
has the same value in a sentence that a noun has. To be a 
noun attribute it must mean the same as the subject. 

13. Any word, clause or phrase that modifies a noun, 
pronoun, or substantive, parallels in its use an adjective 
and has the same value in a sentence that an adjective has. 
An adjective attribute describes the subject but does not 
modify it. 

14. Any word, clause, or phrase that modifies a verb, 
adjective, participle, infiinitive or adverb as to time, place, 
cause, manner, etc., parallels in its use an adverb and has 
the same value in a sentence that an adverb has. 

15. A Noun Clause is a clause sentence used as sub- 
ject, attribute, object or appositive. 

16. An Adjective Clause is a clause sentence which 
modifies a noun, pronoun, or substantive. 

17. An Adverb Clause is a clause sentence which 
modifies a verb, adjective, participle, infinitive or adverb 
as to time, place, cause, manner, etc. 

18. A Noun Phrase is a phrase used as subject, attri- 
bute, object or appositive. 

19. A noun attnbute means the same person or thing 
as the subject. An adjective attribute describes the subject 
in some way. 



THE WORKING BASIS, 9 

20. An Adjective Phrase, unless it be used as an 
adjective attribute, is a phrase which always modifies a 
noun, pronoun, or substantive. 

21. An Adverb Phrase is a phrase which modifies a 
verb, adjective, participle, infinitive or adverb as to time, 
place, manner, etc., as an adverb does. 

22. A Noun Participle is one used as subject, attri- 
bute, object or appositive. When it means the same as the 
subject it is a noun attribute. When it describe the sub- 
ject in some way it is an adjective attribute. 

23. An Adjective Participle, unless it is used as an 
adjective attribute, always modifies a noun, pronoun or 
substantive. 

24. An Adverb Participle is one that modifies as to 
manlier, cause, etc., as an adverb does. This is the most 
infrequent use of the participle. 

25. The Shifting Use of any element means tiiat 
whatever icse it performs in a sentence determines what 
part of speech it is. 

The terms use, function, office and construction mean 
the same thing and are equivalents in the study of gram- 
mar. 

26. The term substantive is usually applied to any ele- 
ment that parallels in its use a noun. 

27. A Clause or a Phrase has the value of a single 
part of speech in a sentence, and parallels either a noun, 
adjective or adverb, always. 

28. The Verbals, by which is meant participles and 
infinitives, never predicate anji;hing of a subject; they 
have no person or number; they are never used as verbs 
under any circumstances ; and they always parallel in their 
nses either noum, adjectives or adverbs. 

29. A Modifying Element is never conuected to the 



10 THE W©RKING BASIS. 

element or any part of the element which it modifies under 
any circumstances. 

30. The four parts of speech that are never used as 
modifying elements are: Verbs, Prepositions, Conjunc- 
tions and Interjections. 

SOME USES OF UNMODIFYING ELEMENTS. 

31. Transitive Verbs always govern objective ele- 
ments of whatever class, and are always complete simple 
predicates. ^^^ 

32. Prepositions govern objects but not objective ele- 
ments. The preposition and its object is a phrase never 
separated in analysis. 

33. Intransitive Verbs do not govern objects, but 
they are complete simple predicates. 

34. Copulative Verbs are incomplete intransitive 
verbs. They aWays have attributes to complete predica- 
tion. 194 

35. A Conjunction connects elements that do not mod- 
ify each other. 

36. An Interjection has no structural use whatever in 
a sentence. 

37. The Inflections in English are:— 

The declension of nouns, 
The declension of pronouns. 
The conjugation of verbs. 
The comparison of adjectives. 
The comparison of adverbs. 

38. The Parts of Sentences are either words, claus- 
es or phrases used as elements. 



THE WORKING BASIS. 11 

39. All Elements of a sentence are either prinoipal 
or subordinate, and are classified as follows: 

1. Parts of Speech Elements, 

2. Clause Elements. 

3. Phrase Elements. 

40. Parts of Speech Elements. 

1. The Principal Elements of a sentence are :— 

(1) The Subject Element, — a noun or pronoun. 

(2) The Predicate Element,— a verb or verb and attri- 
bute. 

If a complete verb the verb alone will form the simple 
predicate. If a copulative verb it will not form the simple 
predicate but wiU stand verb and attribute either as verb 
and noun, verb and pronoun, or verb and adjective. 

2. The Subordinate elements of a sentence are:— 

(1) The Objective Element,— a noun or pronoun. 

(2) The Adjective Element,— an adjective, appositive, or 



(3) The Adverbial Element,— an adverb. 

41. Clause Elements. '^^ ^9 105 120 ire 237 306 ses 

1. The Principal Elements are:— 

(1) The Subject Element,— noun clause. 

(2) The Predicate Element,— verb, or verb and attribute 
clause. 

2. The Subordiniate Elements are:— 

(1) The Objective Element,— la noun clause. 

(2) The Adjective Element,— an appositive or relative 
clause. 

(3) The Adverbial Element, — an adverb clause. 



12 THE WORKING BASIS, 

42. Phrase Elements, "^ ^o 107 122 239 308 

1, The Principal Elements are:— 

(1) The Subject Element,— a noun phrase. 

(2) The Predicate Element,— verb, or verb and attri- 
bute phrase. 

2. The Subordinate Elements are:— 

(1) The Objective Element, — a noun phrase. 

(2) The Adjective Element,— an appositive or adjective 
phrase. 

(3) The Adverbial Element,— An adverb phrase. 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



HELPFUL STATEMENTS. 

The self-explanatory term as noun clause, noun partici- 
ple, appositive phrase, adverh infinitive, is generally used. 

The very small figures like "^^ ^06 refer to some article 
containing a parallel thought or a helpful statement. 

The modifying elements whether nouns, pronouns, ad- 
jectives or adverbs have the parallel uses of clauses and 
phrases considered along with them in studying the parts 
of speech. As the student sees the constant parallelism 
of all modifying elements as either nouns, adjectives or 
adverbs in all of their uses in sentences, he will arrive at 
his proofs with absolute precision, commensurate with his 
skill to grasp the truths of parallelism and comparison in 
all of their relations to the study of grammar. 



NOUN ELEMENTS. 



NOUNS. 



43. Parallel Uses: — 

1. Nouns are used as subject, attribute, object, appos- 

itive. 

2. Pronouns are used as subject, attribute, object, 

appositive. 

3. Noun clauses are used as subject, attribute, object, 

appositive. 

4. Noun phrases are used as subject, attribute, object, 

appositive. 

44. Nouns and pronouns are also used as possessives. 
Pronouns represent nouns and bave the parallel uses of 
nouns. 

PROPERTIES OF- 

45. Nouns:— 50, Pronouns: — 



46. 



47. 



I. Case 


I. Case 


2. Gender 


2. Gender 


3. Person 


3. Person 


4. Number 


4. Number 


CASES OF- 




Nouns:— 51. 


Pronouns:— 


I. Nominative 


I. Nominative 


2. Possessive 


2. Possessive 


3. Objective 


3. Objective 


GENDERS OF 


_ 


Nouns:— 52. 


Pronouns : — 


I. Masculine 


I. Masculine 


2. Feminine 


2. Feminine 


3. Neuter 


3. Neuter 


4. Common 


4. Common 



[131 



14 NOUN ELEMENTS. 

PERSONS OF- 

48. Nouns:— 53. Pronouns: — 

1. First Person i. First Person 

2. Second Person 2. Second Person 

3. Third Person 3. Third Person 

NUMBERS OF- 

49. Nouns:— 54. Pronouns: — 

1. Singular Number i. Singular Number 

2. Plural Number 2. Plural Number 

55. A Noun is a name. 

There are two Classes of Noiuis: — 

1, Proper Nouns 

2. Common Nouns 

56. A Proper Noun is the name of,— 

1. A particular person; Henry saw Mr. Smith. 

2. A particular people; The English despised the 

Indians. 

3. A particular place; He lives in Weston. 

4. A particular thing; Scarlatina is an acute 

fever. 

57. A Common Noun is the name of anything com- 
mon: hoy, girl, crowd, trees, roads, mud, children, bold- 
ness, refinement, misery, pleasure. 

There are four Suhdivisions of Common Nouns: — 

1. Class Nouns 

2. Abstract Nouns 

3. Collective Nouns 

4. Verbal Nouns 

58. Class Nouns are names of individual things of 
any group or class : apples, hoys, house, orchard, beauties, 
truths. 



NOUN ELEMENTS. 15 

59. Abstract Nouns are names apart, or abstracted 
from something, as holdness from bold, pleasure from 
please, etc. : ivisdom, presidency, election, heauty, knowl- 
edge, hoyJiood, length, breadth, tvidth, choice, heroism, 
distance, sovereignty, mastery, honesty, purity. 

Abstract Nouns are formed for the most part from nouns, 
adjectives or verbs. There are a few abstract nouns not 
formed from other words as, faith, time, space. 

60. Collective Nouns are names of a collection or 
group of objects of the same class : nation, jury, congress, 
army, herd, fleet, society, mob, orchestra, fatnily. 

61. A Verbal Noun is a verbal which names an action 
or expression: doing, writing, rumiing, crowding, singing. 

The term may be applied to infinitives that simply 
name an action or expression as well as to participles : to do, 
to write, to run, to crowd, to sing. 

62. A fact often overlooked: Whenever an aJbstraet, 
collective or verbal noun is pluralized it is a class noun: 
pleasures, congresses, writings. It then becomes an indi- 
vidual of a class or group.^^ 

EXERCISES 1.* 
1. Test. 

1. Give parallel uses of nouns, pronouns, noun-clauses and 
noun-phrases. *° " *^ 

2. In what respect are nouns and pronouns parallel? Are the 
properties and uses of one the properties and uses of the other? 

3. Distinguish fully between proper and common nouns. 
Name and define the different kinds of common nouns. 
When are abstract, collective and verbal nouns class nouns? 

Are words parts of sentences? Are clauses? Are phrases? 



4' 

5 

Why 

6 



7. Are modifying words, clauses and phrases either nouns, 
adjectives or adiverhs in use, always? ' 



Jring up or make up sentences to suit the various needs. 



16 NOUN ELEMENTS. 

8. Name the four parts of speech that are modifying ele- 
ments. * 

9. Name the four parts of speech that are never modifying 
elements. ** 

2. Point out each noun, tell whether it is proper or 
common; and if common whether class, abstract, collective 
or verbal. 

1. The difference between one boy and another boy is not so 
much in talent as in energy. — Dr. Arnold. 

2. There is nothing so kingly as kindness, and nothing so 
royal as truth. — Alice Gary. 

3. Virtue is beauty. — Shakespeare. 

4. Our greatest glory consists, not in never falling, but in 
rising every time we fall. — Goldsmith. 

5. Every now and then a man's mind is stretched by a new 
idea or sensation, and never shrinks back to its former dimensions. 
— O. W. Holmes. 

3. Exercises in Synthesis: — 

Make up sentences in groups of three as follows: 



Three each containing a proper noun. 

Three each containing a common noun. 

Three each containing a class noun. 

Three each containing an abstract noun. 

Three each containing a collective noun. 

Three each containing a verbal noun. 



NOMINATIVE CASE. 



63. The Subject is a noun, pronoun or substantive of 
which the verb says something. Boys play. They play. 
What she said is true. _ To love is right. 

64. The Predicate is always a verb or verb and attri- 
bute. Ver*bs are transitive, intransitive or copulative. The 
only verbs that need attributes to complete the predicate 
are the copulative verbs. There are only a few copulative 



NOUN ELEMENTS. 17 

verbs, 'but they are used quite often. They are : Be ov am 
in all its forms, are, is, was, ieen, and some other verbs as 
seem, look, grow, appear, feel, taste, turn, lie, and stand, 
when the idea of being is prominent. ^^^ 

65. The Attribute helps the copulative verb say some- 
thing of the subject. The copulative verb -|- the attribute 
= the predicate : — 

1. Rivers are + streams. 

2. Horses are + animals. 

3. It is + he. 

4. The fact is + / love him. 

66. The Attribute then is a noun, pronoun or sub- 
stantive which, with the copulative verb, says something of 
the subject:— 

1. Rivers are streams. 

2. Horses are animals. 

3. It is he. 

4. The fact is / love him. 

67. The Nominative Case is the case of the subject 
or attribute.* 





Subjects. 




Predicates. 


I. 


Men 




work 


2. 


Boys 




study- 


3- 


Trees 




are plants. 


4- 


Knives 




are instruments. 


5- 


Sheep 




are quadrupeds. 


6. 


It 




is Mr. Davis. 


7- 


The object 




is to succeed. 


8. 


That the man is sick 


is a fact. 


9. 


The opinion 




is, that he is guiky. 


ID. 


To dare 




is to do. 



Point out all Nominatives in the above sentences and give reas- 
ons for your decisions. ™ 



* An adjective is frequently used as an attribute, but it is not a 
name, and never has case. 



18 NOUN ELEMENTS. 

Analysis : — 

I. Men is the subject. 

work is the predicate. 
3. Trees is the swbject. 

are plants is the predicate. 

plants is the attribute and 

are is the copula. ''"' 

8. That the man is sick is the subject. 
is a fact is the predicate. 

fact is the attribute and is is the copula. 

fact is modified by 

a an adjective element. 

9. T/i^ opinion is the subject. 

opinion is modified by f/i^ an adjective element. 
is that he is guilty is the predicate. 
that he is guilty is the attribute and 
is is the copula. 
10. To dare is the subject. 
is to do is the predicate. 
to do is the attribute and 
is is the copula. 

68. A Clause is a sentence with the value of a single 
part of speech when it parallels in use. ^^ 

The Subject or Nominative Clause is a sentence used as 
the subject. 

69. Every Clause has within its own structure a sub- 
ject and a predicate. 

70. Equivalent Terms and Expressions of a sub- 
ject clause:— 

Subject clause. Third class element. 

Noun clause. Noun element. 

Noun sentence. Noun proposition. 

Subject sentence. Subject element. 

Subject clause. Subject proposition. 

Substantive. Nominative clause. 

Substantive clause. Nominative sentence. 



NOUN ELEMENTS. 19 

71. The Subject Clause parallels in its use a single 
part of speecih, the noun, always:— '^^ 

1. Whatever she does prospers. 

2. What is new is not always true. 

3. Why he did it is a mystery. 

4. Who she was is not known. 

5. That he is sick is evident. 

6. Which it is appears uncertain. 
Who executed it has not been determined. 
That he should study diligently seems needful. 
That you are pleased is certain. 

Analysis : — 

1. Whatever she does is the subject. 
prospers is the predicate. 

2. What is new is the subject. 

is not always true is the predicate. 
is true is the simple predicate. 
true is the attribute and is is the copula. 
true is modified by 

always an adverbial element which is modified by 
not an adverbial element. 
5. That he is sick is the subject. 
is evident is the predicate, 
evident is the attribute and is is the copula. 

7. Who executed it is the subject. 

has been determined not is the predicate. 

has been determined is the simple predicate modified by 

not an adverbial element. 

72. A Phrase is an infinitive, or a preposition and its 
object, with the value of a single part of speech which it 
parallels in use. 

73. The Subject or Nominative phrase is an infini- 
tive or prepositional phrase used as the subject. 

74. Equivalent Terms and Expressions of a Sub- 
ject phrase:— 



20 NOUN ELEMENTS. 

Subject. 
Noun phrase. 
Substantive phrase. 
Substantive. 
Noun element. 
Second class element. 
Nominative phrase. 

75. The Subject Phrase parallels in its use a single 
part of speech the noun, always:— 

1. To see is to believe. 

2. To err is human. 

3. To love is right. 

4. To forgive is divine. 

5. To deceive is v/rong. 

6. To try is honorable. 

7. To know her is to love her. 

8. To worry seems useless. 

76. Tests for the Subject: — 

1. Of what noun, clause or phrase is something chiefly- 

said by the verb or verb and attribute? 

2. Does it answer the question formed by using wJio or 

what with the predicate f 

Analysis ; — 

I. To see is the subject. 

is to believe is the predicate. 

to believe is the attribute and is is the copula. 

7. To know her is the subject. 

to know is the simple subject modified by 

her an objective element. 

is to love her is the predicate. 

to love her is the attribute and is is the copula. 

to love is modified by 

her an objective element. 

8. To ivorry is the subject. 
seems useless is the predicate. 

useless is the attribute and seems is the copula. " 



NOUN ELEMENTS. 21 

EXERCISES 2. 

1. Test. 

1. What is the subject? The predicate? 

2. Which verbs need help to complete predication? What are 
they called? 

3. What is the Nominative case? " 

4. What is the attribute? '" 

5. What is a clause? Nominative clause? 

6. What is a phrase? Nominative phrase? "'^ 

7. Does every clause have a subject and predicate? Does a 
phrase? 

8. By what other names is a subject clause known? '" 

9. By what other names is a subject phrase known? '* 

10. What part of speech does a subject clause parallel in use? 

11. What part of speech does a subject phrase parallel in use? 

12. Are they identical in outline? ** " *2 Does the same reason- 
ing that determines one subject determine any subject of whatever 
class ? 

13. Give two good tests that may be used in finding out what 
the subject of a sentence is. '® 

2. Test the foregoing clause and phrase suhjeets in ar- 
ticles 71 and 75. 

3. Test the following subjects:— 

1. The government still lives. ''' 

2. The Americans made a bold attempt. 

3. The singing of birds is delightful. 

4. The soil was deep and fertile. 

5. The United States adopted a new public land system. 

6. West Point Military Academy was founded in 1802. 

7. Education begins the gentleman, but reading, good company 
and reflection must finish him. — John Locke. 

8. Here once the embattled farmers stood 

And fired the shot heard round the world. — Emerson. 

77. An Attribute Clause is one used with a copula- 
tive verb to complete the predicate. It has the value of a 
single part of speech. 



22 NOUN ELEMENTS. 

78. Equivalent Terms and Expressions of an Attri- 
bute clause:— 

Noun clause. Complement clause. 

Attribute sentence. Third class element. 

Predicate clause. Attributive element. 

Substantive clause. Nominative clause. 

Predicate sentence. Predicate proposition. 

Noun sentence. Attribute sentence. 

79. An Attribute Clause parallels in its use a single 
part of speech a noun, always:— 

1. The opinion is, that he is innocent. 

2. My desire is, that you may be happy. 

3. The mystery is, how he obtained the money. 

4. Things are not ahvays what they seem. 

5. I am zvhat I am.. 

6. A good education is what he desires. 

7. What he said is what he meant. 

Analysis : — 

I. The opinion is the subject. 

is that he is innocent is the predicate. 

that he is innocent is the attribute and is is the copula. 
5. / is the subject. 

am zvhat I am is the predicate. 

what I am is the attribute and am is the copula. 
7. What he said is the subject. 

is what he meant is the predicate. 

zvhat he meant is the attribute and is is the copula. 

80. An Attribute Phrase is one used as an attribute 
to complete the predicate. It has the value of a single part 
of speech and parallels a noun or an adjective in its use, 
always: — 

1. When it parallels a noun or pronoun it means the 
same thing as the subject means,— Our work is to shovel. 
To work is to exercise. His desire is to succeed. 

2. When it parallels an adjective it describes the sub- 



NOUN ELEMENTS. 23 

ject,— She is to he educated. He is to go* The streets are 
heing paved. 

1. Noun Attribute Phrases: — 

1. My only hope is to escape. 

2. Our plan is to divide the money. 

3. To see is to observe. 

4. My wish is to live. 

5. Her desire is to help her friend. 

6. His ambition was to excel. 

7. His business is to deliver messages. 

2. Adjective Attribute Phrases: — 

1. He is to be electrocuted at midnight. 

2. They were to come at five. 

3. He is to read a paper. 

4. The decision is to be made. 

5. He was to have been punished. 

6. The girls are to gather flowers. 

7. The boys are to carry wood. 

Analysis : — 

I. My only hope is the subject. 

hope is the simple subject modified by 

my and 

only, two adjective elements. 

is to escape is the predicate. 

to escape is the attribute and is is the copula, 
r. He is the subject. 

is to be electrocuted at midnight is the predicate. 

to be electrocuted at midnight is the attribute and is is the 
copula. 

to be electrocuted is modified by 

at midnight an adverbial element of the second class. 

81. Equivalent Terms and Expressions of an Attri- 
bute phrase:— 

* The present infinitive follows the copulative verb in a manner 
similar to the present participle in the progressive form, and the 
passive infinitive follows the copulative verb in a way similar to the 
perfect participle in the passive form. 



24 NOUN ELEMENTS. 

1. Noun Attribute Phrase: — 

Noun phrase. Second class element. 

Substantive. Attributive element. 

Noun element. Predicate phrase. 

Substantive phrase. Nominative phrase. 

2. Adjective Attribute Phrase: — 

Adjective phrase. Predicate phrase. 

Attributive phrase. Attribute phrase. 

Predicate adjective phrase. Descriptive phrase. 
Element of the second class. 

82. An Attribute Adjective phrase has the value of 
a single part of speech and parallels in its use a predicate 
adjective, always. 

83. A Predicate Adjective or Predicate adjective 
phrase never modifies the subject; if it did the subject 
would be made complex. It describes the subject more or 
less, but does not modify it. 

EXERCISES 3.* 

1. Test. 

1. What is an attribute? Where is it always found? 

2. What verb is incomplete? Does an attribute complete the 
predicate ? 

3. Name the principal incomplete or copulative verbs. 

4. Can a noun be an attribute? Can a pronoun? Can an 
adjective? 

5. Can a clause be an attribute? Can a phrase? 

6. Does an attribute phrase alwaj^s parallel a noun in its 



use 



7. A phrase parallels either a noun or an adjective as an attri- 
bute; how do you tell which it is? 

8. Give other terms and expressions of an attribute clause 
that may be applied to it. '* Of an attribute phrase. ** 

9. Does a predicate adjective attribute modify the subject? 
Why? '' 



* Lead up from the known to the unknown, to whatever facts are 
known, link other facts. Group all parallel uses. 



NOUN ELEMENTS. 25 

2. Point out all subject and attribute elements of what- 
ever class :— 

1. Boys and girls study and sing. '' 

2. To bear our fate is to conquer it. 

3. Playing ball is good exercise. 

4. The flowers are beautiful. 

5. Whosoever will, may come. " 

6. Whatever purifies, sanctifies. 

7. What he writes is what he thinks. " '* 

8. Mary is to be educated. ^^ 

9. Who is to come next? "" ''" 

10. The winds and waves are always on the side of the ablest 
navigators. — Gibbon. 

11. She is industrious. "* 

12. The hills are high. 

13. The trees look green. 

14. They seem happy. ^" 

15. To see is pleasant. 

16. The clouds are beautiful. 

3. Exercises in Synthesis:— Make up sentences in 
groups of three as follows: 

1. Three with nouns or pronouns as subjects. 

2. Three with nouns or pronouns as attributes. 

3. Three with clauses as subjects. ''^ 

4. Three with phrases as subjects. '^ 

5. Three with clauses as attributes. ^° 

6. Three with phrases as attributes. *° 

POSSESSIVE CASE. 

84. The Possessive Case* usually denotes possession 
in some sense,— The teacher's hat. His hat. Our hat. 

85. The sign of the possessive case singular is 's: — 
Tom's knife. Harry's book. Helen's umbrella. 

86. The sign of the possessive case plural is 5':— Boys' 
playground. Ladies' aid. Teachers' a.ssociation. 



The .sign ' is called an apostrophe. 



26 NOUN ELEMENTS. 

87. Some plural nouns do not end in .9, The 's is then 
used:— Men's, deer's, oxen's, children's. 

88. A noun in the possessive case is nearly always 
equivalent to of and its object:— 

Mr. Smith's house=The house of Mr. Smith. 
Joseph's coat^The coat of Joseph. 

89. When separate possession is meant each noun has 
the sign:— Greorge's and Ralph's instruments are in the 
office. 

90. The sign is usually placed on the last appositive 
noun:— I am using Henry the student's outline. 

91. The sign is usually placed on the prepositional 
phrase used as an adjective:— The King of England's 
reign. 

92. The sign of compound words and names is placed 
last:— Somebody else's work. Brown and Mill's Store. My 
soninlaw 's property. A night-templar 's costume. 

93. Sometimes the possessive modifies something under- 
stood:— I saw him at Mr. Little's. 

94. The s is sometimes omitted in nouns of more than 
one syllable ending in s or z:— Moses' Seat. 

95. It's \fi an abbreviation of it is and should never be 
used for the possessive pronoun its :— The eagle is in its 
nest. 

96. In idiomatic expressions like conscience' sake, good- 
ness' sake, the noun is followed by the ' only. 

97. All nouns and pronouns in the possessive case par- 
aUel adjectives in their uses as modifying elements. They 
modify nouns. They are adjective elements : — Mary's book, 
Ber pencil. My hat. 

98. As a good kelp test sometimes to tell whether a noun 
should have the singular or plural inflection, try whether 
a personal pronoun in the Singular or Plural can be sub- 
stituted for it: — 



NOUN ELEMENTS. 27 

Mary's hodk^=^Her book. 

The Ladies' Aid Society^=r/f^i> Aid Society. 

The hoys' playground=:r/?^ir playground. 

EXERCISES 4. 

1. Synthesis: — 

Make lap sentences showing the possessive ease of David, 
girl, horse, it, Webster, Lanub and Wilson, Washington the 
Statesmian, George IV, Saul the King, The Queen of Eng- 
land, President of the United States. 

2. What kind of elements are nouns and pronouns in 
the possessive case ? Why ? ^'^ 

3. Point out the nouns in the Possessive case ,and tell 
what they modify :— 

1. John's hat is torn. 

2. This is Mary's teacher. 

3. The children's play-ground is beautiful. 

4. Helen's book is in John's desk. 

5. George's and Frank's books have been shipped. 

6. This is Mr. Cole the teacher's pencil. 

7. Did you bring Elizabeth's umbrella? 

4. Analysis : — 

I. John's hat is the subject. 

hat is the simple subject modified by 

John's an adjective element, " 

is torn is the predicate. "' 
7. You is the subject 

did bring Elizabeth's umbrella is the predicate. 

did bring is the simple predicate ^'^ modified by 

Elizabeth's umbrella an objective element of which 

um.brella is the base ^ modified by 

Elizabeth's an adjective element. 

OBJECTIVE CASE. 

99. The Objective Case is the ease of the object:— 
We saw the monkeys. He came to town. I thought that he 
was gone. He expects to he retired. 



28 NOUN ELEMENTS. 

100. Objects are governed by: — 

1 Transitive verbs. ^^^ 

2 Prepositions. 2^''' 

3 P.articiples.2-0 

4 Infiniiives.2'^*^ 

101. A Transitive Verb must show its subject acting 
upon an object :— Fred caught the oivJ. He saiv him. ^^^ 

102. An Object is always a noun, pronoun, noun 
clause, noun phrase or noun participle: — 

1. I saw the hills. 

2. Emma saw him. 

3. We saw that all was over. 

4. They expected to go. 

5. He had never seen much fighting. 

103. A Preposition coverns the objective ease but 
not an objective element. The preposition and its object is 
a prepositional phrase, an element of the second class which 
has the value of a single part of speech and parallels in its 
use a noun, adjective or adverb. 

104. The Object of a preposition may be a noun, pro- 
noun, clause, phrase, or participle. 

I. He went to the gymnasium. 



He came to me. 

John ran to zvhere he fell. 

He did nothing except to breathe. 

She ran from behind the door. 

He was accused of shooting the ducks. 



105. An Objective Clause has the value of a single 
part of speech and parallels in its uses a noun always : — 

1. We heard what zvas said. 

2. She said that she zvas not at home. 

3. They were convinced by what she said. ^ ^' 

4. We thought that zve should never see you again. 

5. They all inquired who the young man zvas. 

6. She spoke concerning zchat zvas most desirable. "^ '" 



NOUN ELEMENTS. 29 

Analysis : — 

I. We is the subject. 

heard ivhat was said is the predicate. 
heard is the simple predicate modified by 
zi'hat was said, an objective element. 
3. They is the subject. 

Zi'ere convinced by what he said is the complex predicate 

of which 
were convinced is the simple predicate modified by 
hy what he said, an adverbial element of the second class. ^"^ 

Article 250, Rem. 3, and 242-3. 

106. Equivalent Terms and Expressions for an Ob- 
jective clause: — 

Noun clause. Dependent element. 

Substantive. Dependent clause. 

Objective sentence. Dependent sentence. 

Substantive clause. Objective element. 

Third class element. Objective proposition. 

Noun sentence. Subordinate element. 

Noun element. Subordinate sentence. 

Noun proposition. Subordinate clause. . . 

107. An Objective Phrase has the value of a single 
part of speech and parallels in its use a noun always :— 

1. Tell Elizabeth not to go. 

2. He knows whom to trust. 

3. They expected to he invited. 

4. He likes to read stories. 

5. She intends to teach. 

6. I hate to hear such news. 

7. She preferred to see him. 

Analysis : — 

2. He is the subject. 

knoivs zvhom to trust is the predicate. 

knozi's is the simple predicate modified by 

to trust zi'hom an objective element of the second class 

to trust is the base, modified by 

zchom, an objective element. 



30 NOUN ELEMENTS. 

3. They is the subject. 

expected to he invited is the predicate. 
• expected is the simple predicate modified by 

to be invited, an objective element of the second class. 
6. / is the subject. 

hate to hear such news is the complex predicate. **" 

hate is the simple predicate ^' modified by 

to hear such news, an objective element of the second class 
of which 

to hear is the base modified by 

such news an objective element, of which 

news is the base modified by 

such, an adjective element. 

108. Equivalent Terms and Expressions for an Ob- 
jective phrase:— 

Noun phrase. Noun element. 

Substantive. Dependent element. 

Substantive clause. Second class element. 

109. Tests for the Object: — 

1. Does it answer the question formed by using whom 
or what with the verb ? 

2. Try if a pronoun in the objective form can be sub- 
stituted for it. 154 

EXERCISES 5. 
1. Test. 

1. What is the objective case? By what are objects governed? 

2. A verb transitive must show what? "^ ^^ 

3. What is an object? What parts of speech may be objects. *"* 

4. Does a preposition govern an object? Does it govern an 
objective element? "^ 

5. What may be the object of a preposition? ^" 

6. What part of speech does an objective clause parallel in its 
use? 

7. Give some equivalent terms for an objective clause. ^"^ 

8. What part of speech does an objective phrase parallel in 
its use? 

9. Give some equivalent terms of an objective phrase. 



NOUN ELEMENTS. 31 

10. Give a test by which to tell an objective element. "* 

11. Will the same reasoning that detrmines one objective ele- 
ment determine any objective element whether word, phrase or 
clause ? 

12. Can a noun clause be in the objective case? Can a noun 
phrase? ^° 

2. Synthesis: — 

Make up sentences in groups as follows : 

1. Three each containing an objective noun. 

2. Three each containing an objective pronoun. 

3. Three each containing an objective clause. 

4. Three each containing an objective infinitive. ^" ^'^ 

5. Three each containing an objective participle. ^* ^"^^ 

3. Point out all objects and objective elements of what- 
ever class, and give reasons. 

1. I beg your pardon. 

2. I never meant to show that picture. 

3. Did you think that I was trying to sleep? 

4. She fancied that she was criticising me. 

5. "It is for me," she said, taking the envelope. "' 

6. The boys like to coast, to study, and to recite. 

7. The girls like coasting, studying, and reciting. 

8. He declared that the book was lost and that it could not 
be found. "' 

9. They went from St. Louis to San Francisco via Salt Lake 
City. 

10. Our homes are cheerier for her sake, 
Our door-yards brighter blooming, 
And all about the social air 
Is brighter for her coming. 

—Whiftier. 

APPOSITIVE ELEMENTS. 

110. An Appositive is a noun, pronoun, or substan- 
tive which means the same person or thing as another noun, 
pronoun or substantive, and is always in the same case: — 
John the farmer sows wheat. I mijsdf saw it. 



32 NOUN ELEMENTS, 

111. Appositive Elements usually agree in person 
and number, but it is only essential that they agree in case. 

112. A Sentence may be in apposition with a noun: 
—I remember the direction, Turn to the left at Broad and 
High. 

113. A Noun may be in apposition with a sentence:— 
I decided to see her, a decision I did not change. 

114. A Clause may be in apposition with a noun:— 
The report that he did it, is not believed. 

115. A Noun may be in apposition with a noun:— 
Miss Brown the secretary wrote to Mrs. Price the stenog- 
rapher. 

116. A Noun may be in apposition with a pronoun:— 
1, William Henry Harrison, do solemnly declare. ^^^ 

117. A Pronoun maj^ be in apposition with a pro- 
noun : — I myself saw the accident. 

118. Where the possessive inflection is placed at the 
end of the appositive hoth nouns are in the possessive case : 
—J@hn the student's pencil is lost. 

119. An Appositive Clause has the value of a single 
part of speech and parallels in its use a noun always. 

120. Equivalent Terms and Expressions of an Ap- 
positive clause :— 

Noun clause Adjective element *^ 

Substantive Dependent sentence 

Substantive clause Dependent element 

Noun sentence Dependent clause 

Noun element Subordinate sentence 

Noun proposition Subordinate proposition 

Third class element Subordinate clause 



NOUN ELEMENTS. 3 3 

Appositive Elements. 

1. The belief that he is innocent, is well founded. 

2. The fact that she is good, has a great influence. 

3. The hope that he will come seems to strengthen her. 

4. The question, Are we going? has been answered. 

5. The decision that he he released, is important. 

6. The fact that he weeps is evidence of his grief. 

7. Another proof that America was changitig was a new spirit 
of humanity and sympathy. 

Analysis : — 

2. The fact that she is good is the complex subject. 
fact is the simple subject modified by 
the an adjective element; fact is also modified by 
that she is good an appositive adjective element. It is a 

noun clause, 
has a great influence is the complex predicate, of which 
has is the simple predicate modified by 
a great influence an objective element, of which 
influence is the base modified by 
a and 
great two adjective elements. 

121. The Appositive Phrase lias the value of a sin- 
gle part of speech and parallels in its use a noun always. 

122. Equivalent Terms and Expressions of an Ap- 
positive phrase: — 

Noun phrase Second class element 

Substantive Appositional phrase 

Substantive phrase Adjective element ^" 
Noun element 

Appositive Elements. 

I. His desire to go is granted. 



Their agreement to divide equally is just. 

Her effort to please is commendable. 

His determination to knoza the truth is important. 

His request to see his mother should be granted. 

Their desire to capture you is intense. 

This is his decision to try. 



34 NOUN ELEMENTS. 

Analysis : — 

I. His desire to go is the complex subject. '"■' 
desire is the simple subject modified by 
his an adjective element of the first class *" and by 
to go an appositive adjective phrase. It is a no tot phrase, 
is granted is the simple predicate. 

7. This is the subject. 

is his decision to try is the complex predicate. 

his decision to try is the attribute and is is the copula. 

decision is modified by 

his a simple adjective element, and also by 

to try an appositive adjective element of the second class. *' 

123. Sometimes the aippositive folloAvs a copulative 
or passive verb in apposition with the pronoun it used as 
the' subject: — It is good to work. It is pleasant to see. It 
is told that he shot a hear. It is believed tliat he ivill 
succeed. 

124. All nouns, pronouns, noun clauses, noun phrases 
and noun participles in apposition are adjective elements 
in analysis always, and modify the element with which 
they aire in apposition. 

125. A Good Test; for an Appositive element is to 
place some form of the copulative verb is; between the sup- 
posed appositives; if one becomes the subject and the other 
the attribute they are appositives, since attribute nouns, 
pronouns and substantives mean the same person or thing 
as the subject: — 

1. His desire to live is intense. His desire (is) to live. 

2. The belief that the earth is a spJierc is accepted. The belief 
{is) that the earth is a sphere. 

3. The hope tJiat he may regain his health caused him to take 
a long sea-voyage. The hope {is) that he may regain his health. 

4. John the farmer came to town. John {is) the farmer. 

5. / myself said so. I {am) myself. 

6. / John do solemnly swear. I {am) John. 



NOUN ELEMENTS. 35 

EXERCISES 6. 

1. Test the appositive elements in articles 120 and 122. 

2. Point out the appositive elements of whatever class, 
in the following sentences: — 

1. You yourself told me so. 

2. They declared that it was the Governor himself. 

3. He spoke to Mr. Collins the postmaster. 

4. This is Brown the contractor's automobile. 

5. The desire to excel is important. 

6. The opinion that he is innocent has been published. 

7. The doctor's direction, Give a teaspoonful every hour, is 
obeyed. 

8. It is pleasant to see the sun. '^^ 

3. Test. 

1. Do all modifying elements parallel either nouns, adjectives 
or adverbs? ' 

2. What is the subject? "" " When is a noun or pronoun the 
subject? '' '' 

3. When is a clause the subject? " ^° When is a phrase the 
subject? '' " 

4. Can an infinitive or participle be the subject? "^ 

5. Does the same reasoning that determines one element the 
subject, determine all? 

6. What part of speech does a subject clause or phrase para- 
llel in its use? 

7. What is a predicate? "^ Which are complete verbs? "* 
Incomplete? *"' 

8. What constitutes a predicate? '' "" '" 

9. Can an infinitive or participle be a predicate? '" ^'" 

10. What elements can be attributes? ^° '" " 

11. How differentiate between a noun attribute and an adjec- 
tive attribute? *" 

12. When is a clause an attribute? When is a phrase an at- 
tribute? " '» '' 

13. Can an infinitive or participle be an attribute? ""'' ^^° " 

14. What part of speech does an attribute clause or phrase 
parallel? " '" 

15. What parts of speech may be objective elements? "■ 

16. When is a clause or phrase an objective element? "° *** 



36 



NOUN ELEMENTS. 



17. Can participles and infinitives be objective elements? 

18. Are all objective elements of whatever class determined by 
the same reasoning? "' 

19. What part of speech does an objective clause or phrase 
parallel? "' "" 

20. What are appositive elements? "° 



21. What part of speech does an appositive clause or phrase 
parallel ? "' ''' 

22. Are appositive elements of whatever class adjective elements 
in analysis? "* 

23. Can infinitives and participles be appositive elements? 

24. Is a verb, preposition, conjunction or interjection ever a 
modifying element? '* 

25. What four parts of speech then are modifying elements? ' 

4. Exercises in Synthesis: — 

IMake up sentences in groups of three as follows: 

Three each containing a noun in apposition with a noun. 
Three each containing a pronoun in apposition with a pro- 
Three each containing a clause in apposition. 
Three each containing a phrase in apposition. 
Three each containing a noun in apposition with a pronoun. 
Three each containing a pronoun in apposition with a noun. 



I. 
2. 
noun. 
3- 
4- 
5- 
6. 



CASE. 

126.* Parallelism and Comparison in the uses of 
nouns, noun clauses and noun phrases in sentences: •*•> 41 42 

Noun 

I. Subject: — 

1 T help one's 
friend is a dut)'. 

2 T hear you 
makes me sad. 

3 To exercise is im- 
portant. 



Nouns.^^ 
I. Subject: — 

1 The vessel sailed 
yesterday. 

2 Neiv York is a 
large city. 

3 Philip struggled 
nobly. 



Noun 
Clauses?"'^ 

I. Subject: — 

1 What she did 
was right. 

2 What he said is 
unknown. 

3 That the money 
is lost seems certain. 



* The base is printed in italics. 



NOUN ELEMENTS. 



37 



Nouns. ^^ 

2. Attribute: — 

1 The earth is a 
planet. 

2 Her life was a 
romance. 

3 Arnold was a 

3. Object of a Tran- 

sitive verb : — 

1 He achieved suc- 
cess. 

2 Bring the flowers. 

3 They divided the 
money. 

4. Object of a Pre- 

position :— -'" 
I Aim at results. 



2 He continued in 
attendance. 

3 All came but 
Mary. 

5. Object of a Par- 

ticiple :— ^»" 

1 I departed obey- 
ing his orders. 

2 She would sit for 
hours watching her 
sick child. 

3 The lady distrib- 
uting the presents is 
my sister. 

6. Object of an In- 

finitive :— "° 
I Men love to see 
progress. 



Noun 
Clausesy'^ 

2. Attribute: — 

1 The truth is he 
was right. 

2 The expectation 
is that he will accept. 

3 The belief is that 
he is worthy. 

3. Object of a Tran- 

sitive verb: — 

1 You do not real- 
ize zvhat you are. 

2 We know that 
God is good. 

3 Tell Mary that 
she is wanted. 

4. Object of a Pre- 

position : — "°'' 

1 They were sur- 
prised at zvhat they 
saw. 

2 We hurried t o 
where she fell. 

3 He was told of 
what had happened. 

5. Object of a Par- 

ticiple :—"^ 

1 Desiring that he 
should succeed we 
aided him. 

2 They r e a 1 i zing 
that they were in 
danger, left the hall. 

3 Believing that he 
is zvorthy they will as- 
sist him. 

6. Object of an In- 

finitive :— ^°" 
I To know zvhat is 
before us is impossi- 
ble. 



PJirases.^''^ 

2. Attribute:— 

1 The object is to 
capture the guns. 

2 The order was to 
storm the fort. 

3 The question is 
how to decide. 

3. Object of a Tran- 

sitive verb : — 

1 They expected to 
see him. 

2 Love to conquer 
difficulties. 

3 They desire to 
knozv the truth. 

4. Object of a Pre- 

position : — ^"'' 

1 Nothing remain- 
ed but to perish. 

2 They were about 
to decide. 

3 He did nothing 
except to smile. 

5. Object of a Par- 

ticiple :—''' 

1 In trying to make 
his escape he was 
wrong. 

2 Pretend ing to 
k n zv he deceived 
them. 

3 Having rewarded 
his rescuer he was 
happy. 

6. Object of an In- 

finitive :—"^ 
I To love to suc- 
ceed is right. 



38 



NOUN ELEMENTS. 



Nouns. ^^ 

2 Her aim was to 
know the truth. 

3 To see honest ef- 
fort is very encourag- 
ing. 

7. Appositives: — 

1 The poet Francis 
S. Key wrote the 
"Star-Spangled B a n- 
ner." 

2 That man Jones 
is an active fellow. 

3 Spring the season 
of showers has come. 



Noun 
Clauses.^''^ 

2 He tried to tell 
how he had been hurt.. 

3 They stopped to 
ask ivhat is the mat- 
ter. 

7. Appositives : — 

1 They heard joy- 
fully the news that he 
is innocent. 

2 The fact that he 
says so is not suffi- 
cient evidence. 

3 They accepted his 
explanation that he 
7vas detained by acci- 
dent. 



Noun 
PhrasesP"^ 

2 To know how to 
think is important. 

3 It was too dark 
to see how to pro- 
ceed. 

7. Appositives : — 

I His desire to 
know was granted. 



2 His task to carry 
bolts to the boiler- 
makers, is tiresome. 

3 He is doing his 
duty to try. 



127. The Final Disposition of a Clause:* ses 376 

1. No element in any clause has any use outside of that 
clause. 

2. Every clause has the value of a single part of speech. 

3. Determine what use the clause fills as a unit, with the 
value of a single part of speech, which always parallels a 
noun, adjective or adverb. 

4. Then determine what use each element of the clause 
alone performs. After giving its use, which is always either 
a noun, adjective or adverh, analyze it, ^76 Exercise 28. 

Ex. — Where the man went is known. 

1. Where the man zvent is the subject. 
is knozvn is the predicate. 

2. Where the man went is a clause sentence. 
man is the subject. 

zvent is the predicate. 



Adjective clauses -*' and phrases -*' 
Adverb clauses '<* and phrases '"' 



NOUN ELEMENTS. 39 

EXERCISES 7. 

1. Test the uses of the subjects, attributes, objects and apposi- 
tives in all the sentences in article 126. 

2. Memory Test: Nouns, pronouns, noun clauses, noun 
phrases, or noun participles a;re used either as subject, attribute, 
object, or appositive : — Nouns and pronouns may be possessives. °^ 

(i) How do you tell the subject? 

(2) How do you tell the attribute? 

(3) How do you tell the object? 

(4) How do you tell when an element is in apposition? 

3. Give the final disposition of a clause and illustrate by 
examples. 

4. Show the exact parallelism of parts of speech, clauses, and 
phrases in articles 39, 40, 41 and 42 by composing sentences. 



GENDER. 

128. Gender* is used as follows:— 

1. Masculine Gender refers to males,— lir. Allen, Philip, 
He. 

2. Feminine Gender refei-s to females,— 3frs. Allen, 
Martha, She. 

3. Neuter Gender refers to neuter nouns,— A^ew York, 
apples, paper. 

4. Common Gender refers to names common to both,— 
Bird, parent, cousin, teacher. 

129, Gender is distinguished in three ways:— By dif- 
ferent words, by different endings, and by distinguishing 
words: — 



* strictly speaking there are only two g-enders — Masculine and 
Feminine. 



40 



NOUN ELEMENTS. 



I. 


By Different Words:— 


2. By Different Endings:- 


Males 


Females 


Males 


Females 


man 




woman 


lion 


lioness 


boy 




girl 


baron 


baroness 


father 




mother 


count 


countess 


brother 




sister 


heir 


heiress 


nephew 




niece 


Jew 


Jewess 


uncle 




aunt 


priest 


priestess 


son 




daughter 


enchanter 


enchantress 


gander 




goose 


hero 


heroine 


hart 




roe 


executor 


executrix 


sir 




madam 


lad 


lass 


husbanc 


1 


wife 


czar 


czarina 


bachelor 


maid 


tiger 


tigress 


wizard 




witch 


emperor 


empress 


monk 




nun 


giant 

actor 

benefactor 

marquis 

master 


giantess 
actress 
benefactress 
marchioness 

mistress 


3- 


By Distin 


guishing Wor 


ds:— 






Males 




Females 




man-servant 




maid-servant 




bondman 




bondwoman 




he-goat 






she-goat 




he-bear 






she-bear 




cock-sparrow 




hen-sparrow 




turkey-cock 




turkey-hen 




pea-cock 






pea-hen 



130. Comparative Uses of the forms of gender:— 
Class nouns have the three forms of gentier. 
Proper nouns have the three forms of gender, 
Persooiified nouns are either Masculine or Feminine. 
Abstract nouns are Neuter gender. 
Verbal nouns are Neuter gender. 

Collective nouns are Masculine when the individuals 
meant by it are males; Feminine if the individuals meant 



NOUN ELEMENTS. 41 

by it are females; and Neuter gender if the entire collec- 
tion as a unit has no special reference to sex. 

PERSON. 

131. The First Person is the speaker, and is not given 
to nouns unless they are in apposition with a pronoun of 
the First person:— I John saw the light. We the people 
do ordain and establish. 

132. The Second Person is the person or thing 
spoken to, and is not given tO' nouns unless they are in 
apposition with a pronoun of the Second person, except 
when the noun is used by direct aiddress, and even then 
the pronoun may he used as the guide as if in apposition. 
John (you) come here, Mary (you) be generous. 

133. The Third Person is the pei^on or thing spoken 
of, and is given to all nouns spoken of, or in apposition 
with, pronouns of the Third person:— 

The Texaiis fought not only the Mexicans but also the 
Indians upon their borders. To think is to work. Why he 
slwidd fail is a mystery. 

NUMBER. 

There are two numbers in English:— 

134. The Singular number means one:— hoy, beauty, 
apple, house. 

Clauses and phrases when parsed as substantives are al- 
ways in the Singular. 

Abstract and Verbal Nouns are always parsed in the 
Singular number, 

135. The Plural number means more than one:— 
boys, beauties, apples, houses. 



42 NOUN ELEMENTS. 

1. A good practice is to consult the dictionary for any 
plural that may seem in doubt. 

The Formation of Plurals: — 

136. The regular way of forming the Plural is to add 

s or es to the Singular; pencils, mobs, boxes, glasses. 

137. A few nouns change the vowel; woman— women, 
foot— feet, man— men, goose— geese. 

1. A few nouns add en; ox-oxen, child-children. 

138. Some nouns are iLsed in the Singular only, and 
yet have a plural form; economics, politics, news, physics, 
ethics, measles. 

139. Some nouns are used in the Plural only, and have 
also a plural form; oats, scissors, tongs, trousers, tidings, 
shears, billiards. 

140. Proper Nouns are made plural by adding s when 
it does not coalesce in sound, otherwise add es ; The Napol- 
eons, The Joneses. 

141. When Titles are used it is good usage to nuake 
the titles plural; The Misses Allen. Drs. Weston. Senators 
Jones and Davis. Profs. Brown and Williams. 

142. Compound Names add s to the end as attorney- 
generals, or to both parts, as knights-templars, or to the 
principail word as letters-patent. 

143. Letters, signs and marks add 's to the Singular; 

x's, v's, *'s, -|-'s, 

Many nouns change / to v as knives; some do not as 
griefs. Many nouns change y to ies as ladies ; some do not 
as alleys. Some ending in o add cs as potatoes ; others do 
not as solos. 



NOUN ELEMENTS. 



144. Foreign Words that come into our language are 
anglicized or Americanized and assimulated — subjected to 
English laws and analogies, by being accented, or declined 
according to English analogy, and by using prefixes and 
suffixes. The following words are now being slowly assimi- 
lated:— 



Singular 


Plural 


Singular 


Plural 


alumna 


alumnae 


antenna 


antennae 


formula 


formulae 


vertebra 


vertebrae 


nebula 


nebulas 


larva 


larvae 


alumnus 


alumni 


terminus 


termini 


radius 


radii 


stimulus 


stimuli 


focus 


foci 


cactus 


cacti 


datum 


data 


memorandum 


memoranda 


dictum 


dicta 


medium 


media 


stratum 


strata 


effluvium 


effluvia 


erratum 


errata 


bacterium 


bacteria 


appendix 


appendices 


vortex 


vortices 


vertex 


vertices 


radix 


radices 


series 


series 


species 


species 


genus 


genera 


apparatus 


apparatus 


phenomenon 


phenomena 


automaton 


automata 


criterion 


criteria 


ganglion 


ganglia 


thesis 


theses 


oasis 


oases 


axis 


axes 


antithesis 


antitheses 


amanuensis 


amanuenses 


hypothesis 


hypotheses 


analysis 


analyses 


crisis 


crises 


ellipsis 


ellipses 






basis 


bases 


parenthesis 


parentheses 


beau 


beaux 


madam 


mesdames 


bandit 


banditti 


dilettante 


dilettantes 


cherub 


cherubim 


seraph 


seraphim 



Some of these words have English plurals : 
automatons, formulas, cherubs, bandits, etc. 
145. The Declension of a Noun: — 
Nominative: Singular, boy; Plural, boys. . 
Possessive: Singular, boy's; Plural, boys'. 
Ohjective : Singular, boy ; Plural, boys. 



Beans, 



44 NOUN ELEMENTS. 

146. Parsing is giving the properties and the rela- 
tions of a part of speech, or whatever has the value of a 
part of speech. 

147. A Quotation is a noun, whether it be a word, 
clause or phrase:— She said "No." "Who comes there?" 
was heard from within. 

A direct quotation, if it be a sentence, is not a clause. 
It is a Principal sentence ^^"^ paralleling in its use a noun 
or substantive. (Exercises 36, 6) 

PARSING. 

148. Every Noun- clause, or noun-phrase, is a noun, 
common, abstract, neuter gender, third person, singular 
number, and in its use it parallels a single part of speech, 
a noun ; its case is determined the same as a noun. 

149. A Guide to Parsing a Noun:— 

1. A noun, 

2. Proper or common? 

3. Class, Abstract, Collective or Verbal? 

4. Is it Nominative, Possessive or Objective ease'/ 

5. Gender? Person? Number? 

6. As am element what use has it? 

7. Is it subject or attribute? 

8. Is it objective, possessive, or appositive? 

9. Name the noun clauses or noun phrases, if any, and 
tell the use of each. 

EXERCISES 8.* 
1. Test. 

1. .How do you distinguish the different genders? Illustrate 
by numerous examples. ^' 

2. What nouns have the three forms of gender? "" 



* Make the exercises oral or written to suit the imagery and re- 
ceptivity of students. 



NOUN ELEMENTS. 45 

3. The mistake in using collective nouns generally occurs in 
using a wrong personal pronoun referring to them in sentences. 
How may this be avoided? '^° 

4. Differentiate between the different persons. The different 
numbers. 

5. What is the regular way of forming plurals? In case of 
doubt about any word what is a good practice? "' 

6. Give five ways of forming plurals. 

7. How are words coming into our language anglicized? 

8. Drill on foreign plurals. 

9. Decline boy, man, lady. 

10. Are noun-clauses and noun-phrases, and quotations to be 
viewed as paralleling nouns in their uses? 

11. Are all modifying elements either nouns, adjectives or ad- 
verbs in use, always? ^ 

2. Parse the nouns in the following sentences : 

1. "Over the fence and out" is what he said. "' '° 

2. The Normans invaded France. 

3. John seems comfortable, but Mary looks cold. 

4. Mr. ElHs the banker is a brother of Mr. Ellis the lawyer. 

5. That you should make such a statement is rather singular.'" 

6. He knows zvho we are. 

7. Our duty is to try ; our determination is to succeed. 

8. I love to look upon his countenance; I love to study his 
affectionate heart. 

9. Henry Clay, "The Great Pacificator," same forward in Jan- 
uary, with a compromise measure. 

ID. Nathaniel J. Wyeth, of Massachusetts, guided a party of 
settlers to Fort Hall, north of Great Salt Lake, and thence to 
Oregon. 

11. You should do whatever he directs. "^ (You should do 
zvhat? '"') 

12. The fact that she is frightened is evident. '"' 

13. Who she is, is a mystery. '" 

14. To knozv is important. 

15. The report is that they are friends. *° " 

(The noun clauses and noun phrases in the above sen- 
tences are in italics.) 



46 NOUN ELEMENTS. 

3. Exercises in Synthesis: — 

1. Form a sentence containing a proper noun masculine gender. 

2. Form a sentence containing a class noun. 

3. Form a sentence containing an abstract noun. 

4. Form a sentence containing a collective noun. 

5. Form a sentence containing a verbal noun. 

6. Make up a sentence containing three proper nouns, each 
different gender. 

7. Compose a sentence containing three nouns each in a differ- 
ent case. 

8. Write a sentence containing a noun clause and one contain- 
ing a noun phrase. 



PRONOUNS. -8 

150. The Classes of Pronouns are:— 
Personals,—/, thou, or you, he, she, it. 
Interrogiatives, — who, which, what. 
IndeHnites,— who, which, what. 
Relative.s, — who, which, that, as. 
Adjective Pronouns. 

151. A Pronoun usually represents a noun, noun- 
clause, noun-phrase or another pronoun ; but it may be 
used indefinitely 

152. The Antecedent of a pronoun is the element 
which the pronoun represents. 

153. Form: — 

1. The form of a word or element is its shape or ap- 
pearance due prinnarily to its use in the sentence. 

2. The form of a noun or pronoun is mually shown by 
the spelling. 

3. Nouns have tivo forms for Case and three case rela- 
tions:— The spelling of nouns in the Xominative and Ob- 



NOUN ELEMENTS. 47 

jective eases is the same but is referred to as the Nomina- 
tive form. ^^^ 

"When a noun has the possessive inflection— 's or s' or ^ 
—it is in the possessive form. ^^ 

4. Pronouns usually have three forms for Case and the 
same case relations that nouns have. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

154. Declension of the Simple Personal Pronouns: 



First 


Person Second Person 




Third Person 






Singular 




Masc. 


Fein. 


Neut. 


Norn. 


I 


thou 


he 


she 


it 


Pass. 


jmy 
(mine 


(thy 
(thine 


his 


(her 
'(hers 


its 


Obj. 


me 
Plural 


thee 


him 


her 


it 


Nom. 


we 


you (ye) 




they 




Pass. 


J our 
( ours 


J your 
1 yours 




(their 
(theirs 




Obj. 


us 


you 




them 





1. The pronoun you always has a plural verb. 

2. The pronoun it is always neuter gender. 

3. The Editorial we is used to represent but one person. 

4. Determine the use of a pronoun the same as you 
would determine the use of a noun : If subject, attribute, 
object or appositive or possessive, usually the form corres- 
ponds to its use. 

5. A good test for a noun as Nominative or Objective is 
to try whether a pronoun in the nominative or objective 
form can be substituted for it: — 

1 James struck John = ffe struck him. 

2 Mary, Martha and Emma are going =^ TJiey are 
going-. 

3 Philip saw Mary, Martha and Emma. = He saAV 
th em. 



48 NOUN ELEMENTS. 

6. Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, or theirs, should 
be parsed as equivalent to a personal pronoun modifying a 
noun to be supplied:— 

1 That book is yours = your hool\ 

2 This hat is mine = my hat. 

3 That house is ours = our house. 

155. English Idioms that need watching : — 

(1) Such expressions as "That girl of his is indus- 
trious;" "It is me;" "Mine is the best instrument," etc. 

In the structure of the sentences of his is a preposition 
and its object. It modifies girl- but the object of a preposi- 
tion is in the ohjectiue case. 

Me is the attribute of is; but a noun or pronoun as 
attribute is always in the Nominative case. 

Mine is equivalent to a personal pronoun modifying a 
noun to be supplied. These sentences should be disposed 
of in proper form to correspond to their uses:— His girl is 
industrious; It is Z; My instrument is the best. Exercises 
36, 12. 

(2) When my own, thy oivn, his own, her own, our own, 
your own, or their own is used to denote emphatic distinc- 
tion, own may be regarded as an adjective noun ; that is, an 
adjective used as a noun and therefore a noun in use. The 
personal pronoun in the possessive case modifies it :— He 
loves his own. This is my own. Give us our own. They 
sent their own. ^^s 

(3) When the noun can be supplied without doubt as 
to what noun it is, it is right in parsing or analysis to al- 
ways to supply it:— That property is his own (property). 
This hat is my own (hat). The personal pronoun posses- 
sive and the ladjective own both modify the noun supplied. 

(4) In sentences like "Those were his,'' "These are 
ours," "This is mine," the /onn of the pronoun is clearly 



NOUN ELEMENTS. 49 

at variance with its use in the sentences. The possessive 
pronoun is the attribute, but a noun or pronoun as attri- 
hute is in the Nominative case, always. They are pronouns 
in the possessive form but in the Nominative case. They 
are aptly termed possessive-attributes. Where the mistake 
really lies in this idiom is in not using a noun after the 
definitive adjective that is used as the subject; were this 
done, confusion would be at an end. As for instance : 
Those (apples) were his. These (books) are oiirs. This 
(pencil) is mine. That (house) is yours. 

156. Compound Personal Pronouns are those form- 
ed by adding self or selves to the Simple Personals:— my- 
self, himself, itself. No pronoun is ever separated into two 
words either in parsing or analysis. 

157. A Reflexive Pronoun is one governed by a verb 
or prepiosition and means the same as the subject:— He 
bought himself a farm. She spoke of herself. 

158. An Emphatic Pronoun emphasizes a noun or a 
pronoun: — She spoke to the Governor himself. I myself 
saw the accident. 

159. Words like mob, airmy, orchestra, society, family, 
can be used with either a singular or plural verb, and must 
have singular or plural pronouns referring to them accord- 
ingly. 130 11 is better to repeat a name than to use a pro- 
noun that will leave any doubt aibout its antecedent. Al- 
ways consider to what noun it will relate when the whole 
sentence is read. Sometimes, however, there is no obvious 
antecedent nor can one be supplied. 

160. A Guide to Parsing a Personal Pronoun: — 

1 Pronoun. 

2 Simple or Compound? 

3 What is its antecedent? 



so NOUN ELEMENTS. 

4 Decline it and give its case. 

5 Gender? Person? Number? 

6 What kind of element is it ? Give its use. 

EXERCISES 9. 

1. Pai^e the personal pronouns: — 

1. He lifted his eye-brows and shook his head. 

2. It is I. 

3. We love our friends. 

4. You yourself told me so. 

5. He and I saw them. 

6. He called for his own. 

7. She saw us yesterday. 

8. He bought himself a new buggy. 

9. The greatest difficulties lie where we are not looking for 
them. — Goethe. 

2. Test. 

1. Name the simple personal pronouns. Decline each pronoun. 

2. What part of speech does a pronoun parallel in use? ^ 

3. Is a pronoun ever separated into two words? ^°* 

4. How do you determine the use of a pronoun? 

5. What is meant by form} '"' 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.s^s 

170. The Interrogative Pronouns* are who, icJiich, 
what, used in asking questions. 

1. Who: — 

(1) Declined nom. who, poss. whose, ohj. whom. 

(2) It is used for persons, 

(3) It is al'ways Third person, Singular. 

(4) Gender is indeterminate* or neuter. 

2. Which:— 

(1) Declined nom. which, poss. whose, ohj. which. 

(2) It is always Third person, Singular. 



Interrogative adjectives. -*i 



NOUN ELEMENTS. 51 

(3) It is used for things or persons, 

(4) Gender always neuter or indeterminate. 
3. What :— 

(1) Declined 7iom. or ohj. what. Never possessive. 

(2) It is used for things. 

(3) It is always Third person, Singular. 

(4) Gender is always neuter. 

171. Attributive Uses: — Interrogative pronouns are 
attributes when a noun, pronoun, noun-clause, or noun- 
phrase comes after the copulative verb :— 

Who are you?=You are who. 

Which is the lesson ?=The lesson is which. 

What is the trouble ?=The trouble is what. 

172. Agreement:— An Interrogative has no more 
agreement with 'BCRj part of any answer than any other 
pronoun used in asking a question. It is not necessary that 
an Interrogative pronoun agree with anything outside of 
the question, such as subsequent or antecedent. 

173. A Guide to Parsing an Interrogative*— 

1. Pronoun Interrogative. 

2. Simple. Decline it. 

3. Is it Nominative, Possessive or Objective case? 

4. Neuter or Indeterminate ? Third person ? Singular 
number ? 

5. What kind of element is it? Use? 

EXERCISES 10. 

Parse the Interrogatives. 

1. Who is it? Which is it? What is it? 

2. Who is sick? I am. 

3. Who told you? You are too inquisitive. 



* Gender indeterminate means that the gender csf\ not be deter- 
mined. 



52 NOUN ELEMENTS. 



5. Are you happy? I am. ^'- 

4. What is the answer? I do not know. 

6. What is on the hill? A house, a horse, a man, and some hay. 

7. How do you do? I am better. ^'^ 

8. Who is Sir Horace? 



INDEFINITE PRONOUNS/'S 

174. The Indefinite Pronouns are icho, ivliicli and 
what, when used in noun-elaiises or noun-phrases. ^^ ^^ 

1. The Simple Indefinite pronouns are who, which, and 
what. 

2. The Compound Indefinite pronouns are formed by 
adding ever, so or soever to the simple indefinites in any 
of their forms : — 

Nominative who-j-eue^-^whoever. 
Possessive whose4-soet'er=whosesoever. 
Objective whom-}-soeye/^=whomsoever. 

3. The Compound indefinite pronouns are never equiv- 
alent to two words. 

4. The Simple indefinite pronouns are declined the 
same as the Interrogatives are. 

5. The Indefinite Pronouns are alwaj'Ts Third person, 
Singular, and the gender is always neuter or indeterminate. 

175. A Guide to Parsing an Indefinite pronoun:— 

1. Pronoun Indefinite. 

2. Is it Simple or Compound? Decline it. 

3. Is it Nominative, Possessive or Objective Case? 

4. Gender? Person? Number? 

5. What kind of element is it? 

6. Give its use in the noun-clause or noun-phrase. 



NOUN ELEMENTS. 53 

EXERCISES 11. 

Point out the Indefinite Pronouns and classify the 
clauses and phrases in which they are found. 

1. I know who she is. 

2. She sees which it is. 

3. Take what you want. 

'4. He thought of what she had said. 

5. I remember what you wrote. 

6. We saw who lived there. 

7. To know whom to trust is to know whom to love. 

8. To know what to say is important. 

9. Hearing what was said he obeyed. 

10. Take whichever you prefer. 

11. He always asks for what he wants. 

12. What he did is a secret. 

13. Knowing who he was they hailed him. 

14. Having decided to tell what he knew he answered promptly. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS, ^st sts 

176. The Relative Pronouns are tvho, which, that 
and as when found in adjective clauses. ^^ 

1. Who :— 

(1) It represents persons. 

(2) Declined nom. who, poss. whose, ohj. whom. 

(3) Usually agrees with its antecedent in gender, 
person and number. 

(4) It has no use outside of the adjective clause. ^^ 

(5) It never connects. 

2. Which :— 

(1) It usually represents things. 

(2) Declined 7iom. which, poss. whose, o&j. which. 

(3) Usually agrees with its antecedent in gender, 
person and number. 

(4) It has no use outside of the adjective clause. 

(5) It never connects. 



54 NOUN ELEMENTS. 

3. That: — 

(1) It represents persons or things. 

(2) It does not change its form. 

(3) It is Nominative or Objective. 

(4) It has no use outside of the adjective clause. 

(5) It never connects. Try if who, whom or ^vhich 
can be substituted for it. 

4. As:- 

(1) It represents persons or things. 

(2) It does not change its form. 

(3) It is Nominative or Objective. 

(4) It has no use outside of the adjective clause. 

(5) It never connects. Try if who, which or that 
will take its place after the words such, many 
and same. 

111. Number,— Relatives may be used either in the 
Singular or Plural number. 

178. Antecedent,— The noun, pronoun, or substantive 
to which the relative refers is called its antecedent. 

179. The Adjective clause in which a relative pronoun 
is found always modifies the antecedent of the relative 
pronoun. 

180. Uses of the Relative and the Relative Clause: 

1. A Relative Fronoun is either subject, attribute, ob- 
ject or possessive. 

2. It is often a principal element of the adjective clause. 

3. No subject, attribute, object, or possessive ever con- 
nects. 

4. No Adjective Element of whatever class is ever 
joined to the noun, pronoun or substantive which it modi- 
fies. The adjective clause has the value of a single part of 
spe^h, the adjective ^^ always. 



NOUN ELEMENTS. 



55 



181. A Guide to Parsing a Relative pronoun:— 

1. Is it a pronoun, relative, simple? 

2. Decline it if who or which. 

3. Is it Nominative, Possessive, or Objective case? 

4. What is its gender, person and number? 

5. What kind of an element is the Relative pronoun? 

6. Is it subject, attribute, object or possessive ? 

7. Wbat value bias the clause in which a relative is 
found, and what does it modify? 

EXERCISES 12. 

1. Name the adjective clauses. 

2. Parse the relative pronouns. 

"The peasant, zvhose lot was to sow and to reap; 

The herdsman, who climbed with his goats up the steep; 

The beggar, who wandered in search of his bread. 

Have faded away like the grass that zve tread." — 
He zvho fears being conquered is sure of defeat. — Napoleon. 
He that is over-cautious will accomplish but very little. — Schiller. 

3. Exercises in Synthesis : — 
Compose sentences in groups as follows : 

1. Three each containing a different Interrogative pronoun. 

2. Three each containing a different Indefinite pronoun. 

3. Four each containing a different Relative pronoun. 

Review by Parallelism and Comparison: — 



182. Interrogative. 183. Indefinite. 

who, zvhich, what. 
I T h e y represent 
nothing definitely. 



zvho, zvhich, zvhat. 

1 T h e y represent 
nothing definitely. 

2 Found in inter- 
rogative sentences. 

3 Never in a clause 
or phrase. 



2 Found in 
clauses or 
phrases. 

3 Always 
noun-clause or 
nhrase. 



noun- 
noun- 



184. Relative. 

zi'ho, zvhich, that, as. 

1 They represent a 
noun, pronoun or sub- 
stantive. 

2 Found in adjec- 
tive clauses. 

3 Always in an ad- 
jective clause. 



56 



NOUN ELEMENTS. 



4 Never separated 
into two words. 

5 They never con- 
nect. 

6 They are always 
simple. 

7 Third person, sin- 
gular. 

8 IV h indetermi- 
nate, and zvhich and 
what neuter gender. 

9 Never has a defi- 
nite antecedent nor 
agrees with a subse- 
quent. 

10 Its case is de- 
termined by its use in 
its own interrogative 
sentence. 



4 Never separated 
into two words. 

5 They never con- 
nect. 

6 They are simple 
or compound. 

y Third person, sin- 
gular. 

8 All are indeter- 
minate or neuter gen- 
der. 

g Never has any 
definite antecedent. 



10 Its case is deter 
mined by its use in 
its own noun-clause 
or noun-phrase. 



4 Never separated 
into two words. 

5 They never con- 
nect. 

6 They are always 
simple. 

7 Antecedent usual- 
ly determines the per- 
son and number. 

8 May be either 
gender, usually the 
same as the anteced- 
ent. 

9 Always has an 
antecedent expressed 
or understood. 

10 Its case is deter- 
mined by its use in 
its own adjective 
clause. 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, sts 

185. An Adjective Pronoun i.s usually a definitive 
adjective or subdivision of it wliieh does not modify any 
part of speech expressed or understood:— JiZ is over. This 
is for you, A few pressed forward. Either will do. I did 
not say that. 

186. An Adjective Pronoun is an adjective that has 
lost its adjective use and has become the equivalent of a 
noun ; hence the term has arisen Adjective pronoun. With 
equal support it is also called an Adjective noun; that is, 
an adjective having the use of a noun, being a ti^e equiva- 
lent. The latter view is the simpler one of the two and the 
less confusing'. 

187. An Adjective Pronoun has the value of a noun 
and parallels in its use a noun always. 



NOUN ELEMENTS. 57 

188. A Guide to Parsing an Adjective pronoun:— 

1. Parse it as a noun, i'^^ 

2. What kind of element is it? 

EXERCISES 13. 

1. Parse the italicized words: — 

1. Both ran hurriedly down the road. {Who ran?) 

2. Did he see anyone else? Nobody knows. {Who knows?) 

3. Someone took my pencil. {Who took my pencil?) 

4. Neither was regarded with much favor. 

5. This is for Mary; That is for me. {What is for Mary?) 

2. Review Definitive Adjectives : — 
What are pronominal adjectives? "'^ 
Name the demonstrative adjectives. "" 
Name the distributive adjectives. 
Name some of the indefinite adjectives. 



THE VERB. 



189. Some Helpful Statements. 

Verbs never modify. 

Transitive and intransitive verbs are always predicates. 

Copulative verbs with their attributes are always predi- 
cates. 

There can be no predicate without a verb. 

Every verb must have a subject. 
. There can be no sentence without a subject and a predi- 
cate. 

Transitive verbs govern the objective element. 

Intransitive and copulative verbs never govern an ob- 
jective element. 

A transitive or an intransitive verb is always a principal 
element of a sentence. 

A copulative verb and attribute is always a principal 
element of a sentence. 

The subject of the verb, and the predicate are the 
principal elements of a sentence. 

There can be no sentence without them. 

PARALLELISM AND COMPARISON. 

190. A Regular Verb* forms its past tense and per- 
fect participle by adding d or ed to the present Indicative : 
love, loved, loving, loved; instruct, instructed, instructing, 
instructed. 



Weak Verbs, i" 

[58] 



59 



191. An Irregular Verb* does not form its past tense 
and perfect participle by adding d or ed to the present In- 
dicative:— go, went, going, gone; sit, sat, sitting, sat. 



192. Transitive 193. Intransitive 



1 It is finite. 

2 It expresses ac- 
tion. 

3 It may govern an 
object. 

4 It is active or 
passive. 

5 The act may pass 
to the object. 

6 It is active 
passive voice. 

7 It is always 
predicate. 

8 It is regular 
irregular. 

9 It has: — 
(i) Mode 

(2) Tense 

(3) Person 

(4) Number 

10 It has all of the 
principal parts. 

11 It may have any 
of the forms. 



or 



or 



ac- 



1 It is finite. 

2 It expresses 
tion. 

3 It never governs 
an object. 

4 It is active. 

5 The act is con- 
fined to the subject. 

6 It has no voice. 

7 It is always a 
predicate. 

8 It is regular or 
irregular. 

9 It has: — 
(i) Mode 

(2) Tense 

(3) Person 

(4) Number 

10 It has all of' the 
principal parts. 

11 It may have any 
of the forms. 



194. Copulative 

1 It is finite. 

2 It expresses be- 
ing or state. 

3 It never governs 
an object. 

4 It is active — as- 
serfs. 

5 It asserts of the 
subject. 

6 It has no voice. 

7 It is the verb 
part of the predicate. 

8 It is regular or 
irregular. 

9 It has : — 
(i) Mode 

(2) Tense 

(3) Person 

(4) Number 

ID It has all of the 
principal parts. 

II It may have any 
of the forms. 



Helpful Statement:— The Copulative verb is an incom- 
plete intransitive verb when it has attrihutive help to form 
a complete predicate; ^62 The grapes are sour; It is I;l am 
to he educated. The fact is I am guilty. Whenever it is 
used merely to set forth the condition of being or state, or 
followed by a preposition and its object, it has no attribu- 
tive help, and is a complete intransitive verb since it forms 



strong Verbs, "i 



60 VERBS. 

a complete predicate; She appeared. The house stands; He 
is; We are from the North; I am in haste; They have been 
at school. 

195. All Verbs are Active. Verbs that express ac- 
tion, being or state are active. How else could they show 

it? 

196. A Transitive Verb is one which governs an ob- 
ject expressed :— He ate an apple. She saw him. I know 
that he is here. ^^^ Government is the influence one word 
has over another in determining its case. 

197. Voice is that form of a Transitive verb which 
shows:— 

1. That the subject is acting upon an object:— John 
struck Henry. 

2. That the object is being acted upon:— Henry %vas 
struck by John. 

3. The Active voice denotes the subject acting upon an 
object:— 

1. We saw landscapes. 

2. Mary studied algebra. 

3. John ploived the corn. 

4. I loved her. 

4. The Passive voice denotes the subject receiving the 
action: — 

1. Landscapes were seen by us. 

2. Algebra was studied by Mary. 

3. The com was plowed by John. 

4. She was loved by me. 

5. The object in the active and the subject in the pas- 
sive represent the same pei*son or thing. A verb that 
governs an object is transitive. It must govern the objec- 
tive case to be transitive. ^43 



VERBS. 61 

198. An Intransitive Verb does not have an object 
expressed. He ate. She saw. I knoiv. They walk. We 
went to town. 

199. A Copulative Verb is an incomplete intransi- 
tive verb, and must have help to complete predication. The 
idea of being is always prominent as an expression of a 
copulative verb. ^^ ®^ He is aged. Mary seems cold. His 
little friend lay sick. 

200. Equivalent Forms and Expressions of a Cop- 
ulative verb :— 

A Copulative verb is always a (an) 

Intransitive Verb. 

Incomplete Intransitive Verb. 

Copula. 

Neuter Verb. 

Incomplete Verb of Predication. 

Incomplete Verb. 

Incomplete Predicate. '** 
Complete verbs are always transitive or intransitive but 
never copulative. 

201. A Predicate of a Sentence is always a 

1. Transitive verb, active or passive. 

2. Intransitive verb. 

3. Copulative verb and attribute. ^'' 

202. Verbs in the Passive Form are sometimes fol- 
lowed by nouns or descriptive adjectives which refer to the 
subject. These veribs have the value and use of copulative 
verbs, and the nouns or adjectives so u«ed are attributes:— 

He was considered rich. She was called good. He was 
elected director. The chains were n^ade heavy. ^'^^ 

203. There is another class of Copulative phrase verbs 
which has the value and use of copulative verbs followed 
by a noun or adjective attribute:— He seemed to be sick. 
S'he was to appear studious. It seems to be a fact. 



62 



204. Any Phrase Verb paralleling in its use a single 
verb may be considered as having the value of a verb :— 
He was laughed at by his audience. The farm was taken 
possession of by the owner. The old ways have been lost 
sight of by many persons. He commenced to count up his 
gains and losses. 



205. The Principal Parts of Verbs are the parts 
essentially concerned in determining the forms, modes and 
tenses of verbs in general. 

NOTE. — The two participles of the English language are the third 
and fourth principal parts of verbs. ^^ 

206. Principal Parts. Irregular Verbs: — 







Present 


Perfect 


Present 


Past 


Participle 


Participlt 


Abide, 


abode, 


abiding. 


abode. 


Am or be, 


vi^as, 


being. 


been. 


Arise, 


arose. 


arising. 


arisen. 


Awake, 


awoke, r.. 


awaking. 


awoke, R, 


Bear, 


r bore, 
(bare. 






(to bring 


bearing. 


born. 


forth) 






Bear, 


bore. 


bearing, 


borne. 


(to carry) 








Beat, 


beat. 


beating. 


j beaten, 
(beat. 


Become, 


became. 


becoming. 


become. 


Befall, 


befell, 


befalling, 


befallen. 


Beget, 


i begat, 
(begot, 


begetting. 


f begotten, 
(begot. 


Begin, 


began. 


beginning. 


begun. 


Behold, 


beheld. 


beholding, 


beheld. 


Belay, 


belaid, r.. 


belaying. 


belaid, r. 


Bend, 


bent, R., 


bending, 


bent, R. 


Bereave, 


bereft, r., 


bereaving. 


bereft, r. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


beseeching, 


besought. 


Beset, 


beset, 


besetting. 


beset. 


Bet, 


bet, R.. 


betting. 


bet, R. 


Betide, 


betid, R., 


betiding, 


betid, R. 



63 







Present 


Perfect 


Present 


Past 


Participle 


Participle 


Bid, 


[bid, 
(bade, 


bidding, 


jbid. 
(bidden. 


Bind, 


bound, 


binding, 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


biting, 


(bit. 
(bitten. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bleeding, 


bled. 


Blend, 


blent, R., 


blending. 


blent, R. 


Bless, 


blest, R., 


blessing. 


blest, R. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blowing. 


blown. 


Break, 


J broke, 
( brake, 


breaking, 


broken. 


Breed, 


bred. 


breeding. 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought. 


bringing, 


brought. 


Build, 


built, R., 


building. 


built, R. 


Burn, 


burnt, R., 


burning, 


burnt, R. 


Burst, 


burst, R., 


bursting. 


burst. 


Buy, 


bought, 


buying, 


bought. 


Cast, 


cast, 


casting, 


cast. 


Catch, 


caught. 


catching, 


caught. 


Chide, 


chid. 


chiding, 


chid. 


Choose, 


chose, 


choosing. 


chosen. 


Cleave, 


clove, 
(cleft. 




j cloven, 
(cleft. 


(to split) 


cleaving. 


Cleave, 

(to adhere) 


clave, R.,, 


cleaving, 


cleaved. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clinging, 


clung. 


Clothe, 


clad, R., 


clothing. 


clad, R. 


Come, 


came. 


coming, 


come. 


Cost, 


cost, 


costing, 


cost. 


Creep, 


crept. 


creeping. 


crept. 


Crow, 


crew, R., 


crowing. 


crowed. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cutting. 


cut. 


Dare, 


durst, R., 


daring, 


dared. 


Deal, 


dealt, 


dealing. 


dealt. 


Dig, 


dug, R., 


digging, 


dug, R. 


Dive, 


dove, R., 


diving, 


dived. 


Do, 


did, 


doing, 


done. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawing, 


drawn. 


Dream, 


dreamt, r.. 


dreaming, 


dreamt, R. 


Dress, 


drest, r.. 


dressing. 


drest, R. 



64 




VERBS. 








Present 


Perfect 


Present 


Past 


Participle 


Participle 
j drunk, 
(drank. 


Drink, 


drank, 


drinking. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driving, 


driven. 


Dwell, 


dwelt, R., 


dwelling, 


dwelt, R. 


Eat, 


ate. 


eating. 


eaten. 


Fall, 


fell, 


falling. 


fallen. 


Feed, 


fed. 


feeding. 


fed. 


Feel, 


felt, 


feeling, 


felt. 


Fight, 


fought. 


fighting, 


fought. 


Find, 


found. 


finding, 


found. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fleeing, 


fled. 


Fling, 


flung. 


flinging. 


flung. 


Fly, 


flew. 


flying. 


flown. 


Forbear, 


forbore, 


forbearing. 


forborne. 


Forget, 


forgot. 


forgetting. 


j forgot. 
1 forgotten. 


Forsake, 


forsook. 


forsaking. 


forsaken. 


Freeze, 


froze. 


freezing. 


frozen. 


Freight, 


freighted. 


freighting. 


fraught, R. 


Get. 


got. 


getting. 


[got. 
1 gotten. 


Gild, 


gilt, R., 


gilding, 


gilt, R. 


Give, 


gave, 


giving, 


given. 


Gird, 


girt, E., 


girding. 


girt, R. 


Go, 


went, 


going, 


gone. 


Grave, 


graved. 


graving, 


graven, r. 


Grind, 


ground, 


grinding, 


ground. 


Grow, 


grew, 


growing, 


grown. 


Hang, 


hung, R., 


hanging, 


hung, R. 


Have, 


had, 


having, 


had. 


Hear, 


heard. 


hearing, 


heard, 


Heave, 


hove, R., 


heaving, 


hove, R. 


Hew, 


hewed. 


hewing, 


hewn, R. 


Hide, 


hid. 


hiding, 


(hid. 
1 hidden. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hitting. 


hit. 


Hold, 


held. 


holding, 


( held. 
1 holden. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurting. 


hurt. 


Keep, 


kept, 


keeping, 


kept. 



65 







Present 


Perfect 


Present 


Past 


Participle 


Participh 


Kneel, 


knelt, R., 


kneoling. 


knelt, R. 


Knit, 


knit, R., 


knitting. 


knit, R. 


Know, 


knew, 


knowing. 


known. 


Lade, 


laded, 


lading. 


laden, R. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laying. 


laid. 


Lead, 


led. 


leading. 


led. 


Lean, 


leant, n., 


leaning. 


leant, r. 


Leap, 


leapt, R., 


leaping. 


leapt, R. 


Learn, 


learnt, R., 


learning. 


learnt, r. 


Leave, 


left, 


leaving. 


left. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lending. 


lent. 


Let, 


let. 


letting. 


let. 


Lie, 


lay, 


lying. 


lain. 


Light, 


lit, R., 


lighting. 


lit, R. 


Lose, 


lost, 


losing, 


lost. 


Load, 


loaded, 


loading. 


laden, r. 


Make, 


made. 


making. 


made. 


Mean, 


meant, 


meaning. 


meant. 


Meet, 


met. 


meeting. 


met. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mowing. 


mown, R. 


Outdo, 


outdid. 


outdoing. 


outdone. 


Pass, 


past, R., 


passing. 


past, R. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paying. 


paid. 


Pen, 


pent, E., 


penning. 


pent, R. 


(to inclose) 








Plead, 


pled, R., 


pleading. 


pled, R. 


Prove, 


proved, 


proving. 


proven, r. 


Put, 


put, 


putting. 


put. 


Quit, 


quit, R., 


quitting. 


quit, R. 


Rap, 


rapt, R., 


rapping, 


rapt, R. 


Read, 


read. 


reading, 


read. 


Rend, 


rent. 


rending. 


rent, R. 


Rid, 


•rid. 


ridding, 


rid. 


Ride, 


rode. 


riding, 


f ridden. 
I rode. 


Ring, 


(rang, 
1 rung, 


ringing. 


rung. 


Rise, 


rose. 


rising, 


risen. 


Rive, 


rived. 


riving. 


riven, R. 


Run, 


ran, 


running, 


run. 



66 



VERBS. 







Present 


Perfect 


Present 


Past 


Participle 


Participle 


Saw, 


sawed. 


sawing, 


sawn, R. 


Say, 


said. 


saying, 


said. 


See, 


saw. 


seeing, 


seen. 


Sell, 


sold, 


selling, 


sold. 


Seek, 


sought, 


seeking. 


sought. 


Seethe, 


sod, R., 


seething. 


sodden, r. 


Send, 


sent. 


sending, 


sent. 


Set, 


set, 


setting, 


set. 


Shake, 


shook. 


shaking. 


shaken. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


shaping. 


shapen, r. 


Shave, 


shaved, 


shaving, 


shaven, r. 


Shear, 


shore, r.. 


shearing. 


shorn, r. 


Shed, 


shed. 


shedding. 


shed. 


Shine, 


shone, R., 


shining. 


shone, r 


Shoe, 


shod. 


shoeing, 


shod. 


Show, 


showed. 


showing. 


shown, R. 


Shoot, 


shot. 


shooting, 


shot. 


Shred, 


shred, 
j shrank, 
1 shrunk. 


shredding, 


shred. 


Shrink, 


shrinking, 


shrunk. 


Shut, 


shut. 


shutting. 


shut. 


Sing, 


( sang, 
1 sung, 
f sank, 


singing, 


sung. 


Sink, 


( sunk, 


sinking. 


sunk. ' 


Sit, 


sat. 


sitting. 


sat. 


Slay, 


slew. 


slaying. 


slain. 


Sleep, 


slept. 


sleeping, 


slept. 


Slide. 


slid, R., 


sliding, 


j sliddei 
1 slid, R. 


Sling, 


slung. 


slinging, 


slung. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slinking. 


slunk. 


Slit, 


slit, R., 


slitting, 


slit, R. 


Smell, 


smelt, R., 


smelling. 


smelt, R. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smiting, 


( smitten. 
i smit. 


Sow, 


sowed. 


sowing. 


sown, R. 


Speak, 


spoke. 


speaking, 


spoken. 


Speed, 


sped, R., 


speeding. 


sped, R. 


Spell, 


spelt, R., 


spelling. 


spelt. R. 







Present 


Perfect 


Present 


Past 


Participle 


Participle 


Spend, 


spent. 


spending. 


spent. 


Spill, 


split, R., 


spilling. 


spilt, E. 


Spin, 


spun. 


spinning, 


spun. 


Spit, 


J spit, 
\ spat. 


spitting, 


( spit. 
( spitten. 


Split, 


split, R., 


splitting, 


split, R. 


Spread, 


spread. 


spreading. 


spread. 


Spring, 


f sprang, 
( sprung. 


springing. 


sprung. 


Spoil, 


spoilt, R., 


spoiling. 


spoilt, R. 


Stand, 


stood. 


standing. 


stood. 


Stave, 


stove, -R., 


staving. 


stove, E. 


Stay. 


staid, E., 


staying. 


staid, E. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stealing, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck. 


sticking. 


stuck. 


Sting, 


stung. 


stinging. 


stung. 


Stink, 


f stunk, 
( stank. 


stinking, 


stunk. 


Stride, 


strode. 


striding, 


stridden. 


Strike, 


struck. 


striking. 


j struck, 
[stricken. 


String, 


strung, R., 


stringing, 


strung, E. 


Strive, 


strove, R., 


striving, 


striven, E. 


Strow, 


strowed. 


strowing. 


strown, E. 


Swear, 


J sware, 
(swore. 


swearing. 


sworn. 


Sweat, 


sweat, R., 


sweating. 


sweat, R. 


Sweep, 


swept. 


sweeping, 


swept. 


Swell, 


swelled. 


swelling. 


swollen, R. 


Swim, 


swam. 


swimming. 


swum. 


Swing, 


swung. 


swinging. 


swung. 


Take, 


took. 


taking. 


taken. 


Teach, 


taught. 


teaching. 


taught. 


Tear, 


tore, 


tearing. 


torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


telling, 


told. 


Think, 


thought, 


thinking. 


thought. 


Thrive, 


throve, R., 


thriving. 


thriven, r. 


Throw, 


threw, R._, 


throwing. 


thrown, E. 


Thrust, 


thrust. 


thrusting, 


thrust. 



Present 



Tread, 

Wake, 

Wax, 

Wear, 

Weave, 

Wed, 

Weep, 

Wet, 

Whet, 

Win, 

Wind, 

Work, 

Wring, 

Write, 



Past 
1 trod, 
(trode, 
woke, R., 


Present 
Participle 

treading, 
waking, 


Perfect 
Participle 
j trodden, 
ttrod. 
woke, R. 


waxed. 


waxing, 


waxen, R. 


wore. 


wearing, 


worn. 


wove, R., 
wed, R., 


weaving, 
wedding. 


woven, R. 
wed, R. 


wept, 
wet, R., 
whet, R., 


weeping, 
wetting, 
whetting. 


wept, 
wet, R. 
whet, R. 


won, 

wound, R., 
wrought, R., 


winning, 
winding, 
working, 


won. 

wound, R. 
wrought, R. 


wrung, R., 
wrote. 


wringing, 
writing, 


wrung, R. 
r written. 



207. Redundant Verbs are verbs that have more 
than one form for their past tense or perfect participle: — 
Cleave, weave, get. 206 

208. Defective Verbs are deficient in some of the 
principal parts:— oxgr/f^, quoth, betvare, ivish, may, must, 
shall, will. 

209. Unipersonal Verbs are always Third pei-son, 
Sin^ar number. The word it is usually the subject of a 
Unipersonal verb and refers in some way to nature:— It 
rains. It thunders. It storms. It blows. 

210. Auxiliary Verbs are those used in the inflec- 
tion of other verbs: 232 (J^q^ ^g^ have, shall, ivill, may, can, 
must. 

211. The Auxiliaries are principal verbs when used 
without any connection with other verbs expressed or un- 
derstood: — I have your book. He did it. 



VERBS. 69 

FORMS OF VERBS. 

212. The Common Form is the iisuad form: — I 
study. I shall learn. He goes. 

213. The Emphatic Form shows emphasis in the ex- 
pression of action. In this form do in its present or past 
tense is before the simple form of principa;! verbs:— I do 
study. I did follow my guide. She does try. 

214. The Progressive Form shows continuance in 
action. In this form the verb &e is before the present par- 
ticiple of principal verbs:— I am trying. She is walking. 
He might have heen studying. 

215. The Passive Form shows the subject receiving 
the action. In this form the verb &e is befoTe the perfect 
participle of principal verbs:— Fred was hit. They tvere 
taught. The fish was caught. She was loved. 

EXERCISES 14.* 

1. Test. 

1. Compare transitive, intransitive and copulative verbs. 

2. Give equivalent terms for a copulative verb. ■"*' 

3. What is always essential to a predicate? 

4. Drill thoroughly on the principal parts of verbs. 

5. What are the distinguishing features of the Emphatic, Pro- 
gressive and Passive forms of verbs? 

6. In the sentences / study and / study grammar, which verb 
is transitive? Why? 

2. Point out each verb ^and (1) give the principal pai-ts. 
(2) tell whether regular or irregular, (3) tell whether 
active or passive voice, (4) tell whether common, empha- 
tic, progressive or passive form : — 



* Vary any exercises owing- to the advancement and receptivity 
of the student. 



70 



1. She works and he plays. 

2. They did study but they are not studying now. 

3. She was laughing while he was reciting his lesson. 

4. I thought that you would know. 

5. This hawk was killed by the hunter. 

6. We have lingered long enough in these painted courts. 

3. Synthesis:— Maike up sentences as follows: 

1. One with a transitive verb in the active voice. 

2. One with a transitive verb in the passive voice. 

3. One with an intransitive verb. 

4. One with a copulative verb. 

5. One with a verb in the progressive form. 

6. One with a verb in the emphatic form. 

7. One with a verb in the passive form. 

4. Parse the verbs in the sentences you have made up. 



MODE. 

216. Mode is the manner in which the use of a verb 
is expressed. 

217. There are four modes: The Indicative, Potential, 
Imperative, and Subjunctive. 

218. Modes may Change. 

Modes are arbitrary divisions. They are capable of being in- 
creased or diminished in number. 

The signs of the Potential mode may be used as principal verbs, 
and the principal verbs in the Potential may be regarded as infini- 
tives. This will dispose of the Potential mode entirely and the 
auxiliaries or signs, may, can, must, might, could, would or should 
be regarded as Indicative or Subjunctive, according to the manner 
in which they are used : — I can (to) read. She may (to) recite. 
It is preferred to use the infinitive as the principal verb, and the 
auxiliaries to help show the relations of mode and tense, as the 
less confusing. 

Again, the Subjunctive mode may be entirely abolished by put- 
ting all verbs now in the Subjunctive within the province of the 



VERBS. 



71 



Indicative and the Potential modes to present, under all circum- 
stances, the modes of which the signs — the auxiliaries — may, can, 
must, might, could, would, should, has, had, will, etc., indicate, 
irrespective of any doubt or uncertainty, and when the verb is 
expressed by the Potential form call it Potential, and when ex- 
pressed by the Indicative form call it Indicative. 

But here again, there is no greater advantage in making this 
change than there is in making the former; perhaps a less advan- 
tage. But there is no advantage in either classification over the 
first. 

219. The Indicative Mode: — 

1. It is used in both principal and subordinate sen- 
tences. 

2. It is found in declarative sentences. 

3. It is found in questions. 

4. It usually expresses something as actually existing. 

5. It has six tenses:— 

(1) Present, simple form. 

(2) Present Perfect, have or has before the perfect 
participle. 

(3) Past, add d or ed if regular. 

(4) Past Perfect, had before the perfect participle. 

(5) Future, shall or ^vill before the simple form. 

(6) Future Perfect, shall have or will have before 



the perfect participle. 



1. Common Form: 







T 


We 


It 


Present, 




love 


go 


flies 


Present 
Perfect, 


1 


have loved 


have gone 


has flown 


Past, 




loved 


zvent 


flezv 


Past Perfect, 




had loved 


had gone 


had flown 


Future, 




shall love 


tvill go 


zvill fly 


Future 




shall have 


zvill have 


zvill have 


Perfect, 




loved 


gone 


flown 



72 



VERBS. 



2. Progressive Form. 



Present, 
Present 

Perfect, 
Past, 

Past Perfect, 

Future 
Future. 
Perfect, 



I 

am loving 
have been 

loving 
was loving 
had been ) 

loving r 

shall be loving 
shall have been 

loving 



We 

are going 
have been 

going 
were going 

had been going 



It 

has been flying 

w flying 

was flying 

had been flying 



will be going will be flying 
will have been zvill have been 
going flying 



220. The Potential Mode: — 

1. It is used in principal and subordinate sentences. 

2. It is also found in questions. 

3. It usually representis oMigation, liability, inclina- 
tion, etc. 

4. It has four tenses:— 

(1) Present, may, can, must. 

(2) Present Perfect, mmj have, can have, must have. 

(3) Past, might, could, would, should. 

(4) Past Perfect, might have, could have, would 
have, should have. 

I must love. 

I must have loved. 

I could love. 

I could have loved. 

221. The Imperative Mode: — 

1. It is used in principal and subordinate sentences. 

2. It expresses a command or entreat3^ 

3. The subject is always in the Second person. 

4. The subject is omitted unless used to emphasize a 
command or entreaty. 

5. It has only one ten^e— The Present. 

Be kind. Come at once. God said. Let there be light. 



VERBS. 73 

222. The Subjunctive Mode: — 

1. It is used in subordinate sentences, 

2. It is never used in principal sentences. 

3. It usually says something doubtful or uncertain. 

4. The verb in the subjunctive rarely, if ever, ends 
with s. 

5. The signs of the tenses correspond to the other 
modes, usually the Indicative. 

6. If, tJiough, unless, except indicate this mode, but are 
not always reliable. 

7. This mode has three tenses-.— 

(1) The Present. 

(2) The Past. 

(3) The Past Perfect. 

If I were you I would not go. 

I shall go if you stay. 

If it rain I shall not go. 

Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. 

If the foundation is not solid the structure is not safe. 

EXERCISES 15. 
Test: — 

1. Name the four different modes used. 

2. Where is the Indicative found? What does it express? 

3. Name the tenses of the Indicative. Illustrate the tense signs. 

4. Where is the Potential found? What does it usually re- 
present ? 

5. Name the tenses of the Potential. Illustrate the tense sign.s. 

6. Where is the Imperative found? What does it express? 

7. In what person is this mode? 

8. Is the subject always omitted in the Imperative mode? How 
many tenses has it? 

9. Are the number of modes liable to vary? 

10. Where is the Subjunctive found? What does it express? 
How many tenses? 



VERBS. 

In which mode are the following verbs :- 

John, come here. 

She zvill have been invited. 

The bird has flozvn. 

You might have been seen. 

If I were you I would try to sleep. 



TENSE. 

223. Tense means the time of the action. It implies 
absolute time, and also a relative stage, of the action. 

224. The Present Tense means time going on now:— 
I write. I am writing. I do write. He is old. 

Signs, — It is the simple form of the verb. Present time. 

225. The Present Perfect Tense means time of an ac- 
tion now finished:— I have written. I Jiave been writing. 
She has studied her lesson. 

Signs, — have (hast) has. 

226. The Past Tense means the past time of an action: 
— I ivrote. I was writing. I did write. 

Signs, — It is the simple form of the verb. Past time. 

221 . The Past Perfect Tense means time completed as 
to some other past time. I had written. He had been writ- 
ing. I had seen him. 
Signs, — had (hadst). 

228. The Future Tense means an action to take place 
in the future:— I shall write. They ivill arrive next Tues- 
day. 

Signs, — shall or tvill. 

229. The Future Perfect Tense means time t>o be fin- 
ished ait or by the time of some other action in the future : — 



VERBS. 75 

I shall have finished my letter by six o'clock. The vessel 
will have been sailing four days by the time it reaches old 
Point Comfort. 

Signs, — shall have or will have. 

1. I shall, you will, he will are forms of simple futurity and 
merely foretell what is expected to take place. 

2. I will, you shall, he shall express determination on the part 
of the speaker, and are correctly used under such circumstances. 

3. To denote simple futurity shall is used in the first person 
and will in the second and third; I shall, you will, he zmll. 

Synthesis: — Make up sentence groups as follows: 

1. Three each containing a verb in the Indicative mode. 

2. Three each containing a verb in the Potential mode. 

3. Three each containing a verb in the Subjunctive mode. 

4. Three sentences illustrating the use of the Imperative mode. 
Vary the tense in each verb used in each group. 

230. The Synopsis of a verb is a short conjugation 
and consists in its variation through the modes and tenses 
in a single person and number. 

231. Conjugation is the variation of a verb through 
all the modes, tenses, voices, persons and numbers. 

232. Conjugation of the Verb "To Love." 

ACTIVE VOICE— REGULAR CONJUGATION. 





PRINCIPAL PARTS. 








Present 




Perfect 


Present Tense 


Past Tense Participle 




Parlicipk 


Love 


Loved Loving 
1. INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE 




Loved 


Singular 


Plural 




I. I love 


I. We love 






2. Thou lovest 


2. You love 






3. He loves 


3. They love 







76 



Singular 

1. I have loved 

2. Thou hast loved 

3. He has loved 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

Plural 

1. We have loved 

2. You have loved 

3. They have loved 



1. I loved 

2. Thou lovedst 

3. He loved 



PAST TENSE 

1. We loved 

2. You loved 

3. They loved 



1. I had loved 

2. Thou hadst loved 

3. He had loved 



IT PERFECT TENSE 

1. We had loved 

2. You had loved 

3. They had loved 



1. I shall love 

2. Thou wilt love 

3. He will love 



FUTURE TENSE 



1. We shall love 

2. You will love 

3. They will love 



FUTURE PERFECT TENSE 



1. I shall have loved 

2. Thou wilt have loved 

3. He will have loved 



1. We shall have loved 

2. You will have loved 

3. They will have loved 



2. POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE 



1. I may love 

2. Thou mayst love 

3. He may love 



1. We maj' love 

2. You may love 

3. They may love 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 



1. T may have loved 

2. Thou mayst have loved 

3. He may have loved 



1. We may have loved 

2. You may have loved 

3. They may have loved 



PAST TENSE 



Singular 

1. I might love 

2. Thou mightst love 

3. He might love 



Plural 

1. We might love 

2. You might love 

3. They might love 



PAST PERFECT TENSE 



1. I might have loved 

2. Thou mightst have loved 

3. He might have loved 



1. We might have loved 

2. You might have loved 

3. They might have loved 



3. IMPERATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE 

2. Love, or do thou love 2. Love, or do ye or you love 

4. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE 



1. If I love 

2. If thou love 

3. If he love 



1. If we love 

2. If you love 

3. If they love 



1. If I loved 

2. If thou loved 

3. If he loved 



PAST TENSE 



1. If we loved 

2. If you loved 

3. If they loved 



PAST PERFECT TENSE 



1. If I had loved 

2. If thou hadst loved 

3. If he had loved 



1. If we had loved 

2. If you had loved 

3. If they had loved 



78 VERBS, 

PASSIVE VOICE— REGULAR CONJUGATION. 
1. INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE 

Singular Plural 

1. I am loved i. We are loved 

2. Thou art loved 2. You are loved 

3. He is loved 3. They are loved 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

1. I have been loved i. We have been loved 

2. Thou hast been loved 2. You have been loved 

3. He has been loved 3. They have been loved 

PAST TENSE 

1. I w^as loved i. We were loved 

2. Thou wast loved 2. You were loved 

3. He was loved 3. They were loved 

PAST PERFECT TENSE 

1. I had been loved i. We had been loved 

2. Thou hadst been loved 2. You had been loved 

3. He had been loved 3. They had been loved 

FUTURE TENSE 

1. I shall be loved i. We shall be loved 

2. Thou wilt be loved 2. You will be loved 

3. He will be loved 3. They will be loved 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE 

1. I shall, have been loved i. We shall have been loved 

2. Thou wilt have been loved 2. You will have been loved 

3. He will have been loved 3. They will have been loved 



VERBS, 79 

2. POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE 

Singular Plural 

1. I may be loved i. We may be loved 

2. Thou mayst be loved 2. You may be loved 

3. He may be loved 3. They may be loved 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

1. I may have been loved i. We may have been loved 

2. Thou mayst have been loved 2. You may have been loved 

3. He may have been loved 3. They may have been loved 

PAST TENSE 

1. I might be loved i. We might be loved 

2. Thou mightst be loved 2. You might be loved 

3. He might be loved 3. They might be loved 

PAST PERFECT TENSE 

1. I might have been loved i. We might have been loved 

2. Thou mightst have been loved 2. You might have been loved 

3. He might have been loved 3. They might have been loved 



3. IMPERATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE 

2. Be loved, or be thou loved 2. Be loved, or you be loved 
4, SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE 

1. If I be loved i. If we be loved 

2. If thou be loved 2. If you be loved 

3. If he be loved 3. If they be loved 



PAST TENSE 

1. If I were loved i. Were I loved i. If we were loved 

2. If thou were loved 2. Wert thou loved 2. If you were loved 

3. If he were loved 3. Were he loved 3. If they were loved 

For the past perfect tense, prefix if to the forms of the past 
perfect indicative. 



PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 







Present 


Perfect 


?nt Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Participle. 


Participle. 


Love. 


Loved. 


Loving. 


Loved. 



SYNOPSIS— COMMON FORM. 

1. INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present I love. Past Perfect... I had loved. 

Present Perfect I have loved. Future I shall love. 

Past I loved. Future Perfect, I shall have 

loved. 

2. POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present I may, can, or must love. 

Present Perfect... I may, can, or must have loved. 

Past I might, could, would, or should love. 

Past Perfect I might, could, would, or should have loved. 

3. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present If I love. Past If I loved. 

Past Perfect If I had loved. 



VERBS. 81 

SYNOPSIS— PASSIVE FORM. 

1. INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present I am loved. 

Present Perfect I have been loved. 

Past I was loved. 

Past Perfect I had been loved. 

Future I shall be loved. 

Future Perfect I shall have been loved. 



2. POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present I may be loved. 

Present Perfect I may have been loved. 

Past I might be loved. 

Past Perfect I might have been loved. 



3. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present If I be loved. Past If I were loved. 

Past Perfect If I had been loved. 



SYNOPSIS— PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

1. INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present: I am loving 

Present Perfect: I have been loving 

Past: I was loving 

Past Perfect : I had been loving 

Future : I shall be loving 

Future Perfect: I shall have been loving 



2. POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present: I may be loving 

Present Perfect: I may have been loving 

Past : I might be loving 

Past Perfect: I might have been loving 

3. IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present : Be thou loving 

4. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present: If I be loving Past: If I were lovinp^ 

Past Perfect: If I had been loving 



THE EMPHATIC FORM. 
1. INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present : I do love Past : I did love 

3. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present: If I do love Past: If I did lov( 

2. IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present: Do thou love 

INTERROGATIVE FORM. 



1. INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present: Do I love? Am I loving? 

Present Perfect: Have I loved? Have I been loving? 

Past: Did I love? Was I loving? 

Past Perfect: Had I loved? Had I been loving? 

Future: Shall I love? Shall I be loving? 

Future Perfect: Shall I have loved? Shall I have been loving? 



VERBS. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 



Present: Must I love? 

Present Perfect: Must I have loved? 

Past: Might I love? 

Past Perfect: Might I have loved? 

233. To conjugate a verib negatively, use not:—l learn 
not. He had not gone. She would not go. 

234. To conjugate a verb interrogatively, put the sen- 
tence in the form of a question:— Learn I? Learn I noti 
Had he gone ? Had he not gone ? 

AGREEMENT. 

235. Agreement means the relation of nouns, pro- 
nouns, noun-clauses and noun-phrases in apposition, pro- 
nouns with antecedents, verbs with subjects, and adjectives 
with nouns. 

1. The Subject is usually one or more nouns, pronouns, 
noun-cla.uses or noun-phrases. The verb, if not copulative, 
is always the simple predicate of the sentence. 

2. When the subject means one the verb is singular; 
when it means more than one the verb is plural. 

3. If the Subject is singular number the verb is singu- 
lar number. If the Subject is plural number the verb is 
plural number. 

4. If the Subject is in the first, second or third person 
the verb is in the first, second or third person. 

5. A verb with two or more subjects in the singular 
oonneeted by and, is plural. Philip and Mary are studying. 
That he siucceeded and that she did not succeed are facts. 

6. A verb with two or more subjects in the singular 
connected by or or nor is singular. Philip or Mary is study- 



U VERBS. 

ing. Whether he succeeded or whether he did not succeed, 
is not known. 

7. When each, no, or every precedes the subjects the 
verb is singular. Each boy and girl plays ball. 

8. When the subjects connected by either or, or neither 
n/)r, are spoken of in the same person the verb is made to 
agree with the one next to it. Neither Mary nor Jane at- 
tends school. 

9. When the subjects connected by either or, or neither 
nor, are spoken of in different persons the sentence is 
usually compound, a verb saying something of each sub- 
ject: — Either he (is) or I am wrong. 

10. If the idea to be conveyed by the subject is singular 
or plural, the verb is usually correspondingly singular or 
plural:— 

The news is here. 

Bread and milk is good food. 

The horse and buggy is in its place. 

What is economics? 

Measles is a contagious disease. 

11. Some nouns like oats, scissors, shears, tidings, tongs, 
always require a plural verb : — The oats are ripe. The tid- 
ings have come. The scissors are dull. 

12. The pronoun you always requires a verb in the 
plural: — Are you hungrj^? You are joking. 

236. A Guide to Parsing a Verb:— 

1. Verb. 

2. Give its principal parts. 

3. Is it regular or irregular? 

4. Is it transitive, intransitive or copulative? 

5. If transitive, is it active or passive voice? 

6. Is it Indicative, Potential, Imperative or Subjunc- 
tive mode ? 



7. It is in what tense? 

8. Is it common, emphatic, progressive or passive form ? 

9. What is its person and numher ? Why ? 

EXERCISES 16.* 
1. Test. 

1. What is meant by the Regular Conjugation of a verb? ^^ 

2. What is agreement? 

3. Does the verb usually agree with its subject? In what 
ways? Illustrate fully. 

4. Is a transitive or an intransitive verb a simple predicate? 

5. Is the copulative verb a predicate or the verb part of the 
predicate? Illustrate fully. 

6. Can a verb that can not be made transitive be conjugated 
in all the forms? Give reasons for your answer. 

7. Can a verb in the Imperative Mode be conjugated in the 
Third person ? "'^ 

8. Give a synopsis of any verb you please. 

9. Name the signs of the tenses in the Indicative and Potential 
Modes. 

10. How do you tell the tenses of verbs in the Imperative and 
Subjunctive Modes? 

11. Must there be a verb in every sentence? Is it ever a modi- 
fying element? 

12. Speak or write any sentence you please. Parse the verb 
in it. ''' 

Point out and discuss the nouns, pronouns, and verbs 
in the follomng sentences :— 

1. Think for a moment what it means. 

2. Many of the great leaders in the world's history were self- 
educated. 

3. The questions are what do you know and what can you do. 

4. You thought that he was studying economics. 

5. Real service will not lose its nobleness. 

6. What am I? What is my destiny? 

7. Many years ago we were traveling on the river St. Law- 
rence. 



* Increase the lists of sentences at any time, from any source If 
needed. 



PREPOSITION.* 



237. A Preposition is a word that governs an object 
and shows the relation between its object and the word the 
prepositional phrase modifies as an element of the .second 
class. 

238. A Prepositional Phrase is a preposition and 
its object:— He lives m 8t, Louis, Oome to me. He spoke 
of what had transpired. ^41 

239. A Prepositional Phrase usually pairallels in its 
use an adjective or an adverb. Infrequently it parallels a 
noun: — 

1. The man of Troy has come. 

2. He lives in tozvn. 

3. She came from within the walls. 

4. He came to where I stood. 

240. The object of the preposition is usually referred 
to as the noun of the hase of the prepositional phrase; A 
preposition may have several objects:— They went to Balti- 
more, Richmond and Chattanooga. 

241. The word which is modified by the prepositional 
phrase is called the Antecedent term of rdatdon. A prepo- 
sition may have many antecedent terms of relation:— They 
plow, harrow, hoe, sow and reap in the same field. 

242. A Preposition may govern a noun, pronoun, noun- 
clause or noun-phrase :— 



* For the definition of any word used as a preposition, consult 
tlie dictionary. 

[86] 



PREPOSITIONS. 87 

1. She sailed for Liverpool. 

2. She wrote to us. 

3. They came from where the cypress grows. 

4. He did nothing but to zvorry. 

243. When the object of .a preposition is omitted it is 
an advert : — The procession passed hy. She ran within. 

244. The letter a is sometimes a preposition: — I went 
a fishing. He went a foot. 

245. A Phrase Preposition is la comhination of 
words that have the value and use of a single preposition : — 
She ran out of the room. He walked in front of the train. 
She spoke in regard to the mmsic. 

246. Direct Objective Elements are the objects of 
transitive verbs, participles or infinitives:— 

1. We love our country. 

2. Having seen him once is sufficient. 

3. They went to see the elephant. 

The Preposition governs an object hut never an objective 
element. 

247. Indirect Objective Elements are usually con- 
cerned in forming adverbial prepositional phrases. They 
are divided into two classes:— 

1. Indirect Objects that; are more or less plainly objects 
of prepositions understood which can be supplied: — 

(i) Harry, hand me your pencil (to me). 

(2) Tell Mary that I am here (to Mary). 

(3) He sent her a present (to her). 

2. Indirect Objects that are the objects of prepositions 
impossible to supply, if indeed they are the ohjects of an 
unexpressed relation at all. They usually refer to place, 
time, distance, value, or measure. 



PREPOSITIONS. 

My sister came home (to home). 

I saw her Wednesday (on Wednesday). 

The horses ran a mile (to the extent of a mile). 

He is worth a million (to the amount of a million). 

The box is two feet wide (to the extent of two feet). 



Noims used in this olass of objects have the value and use 
of adverbs and are parsed as adverbial objectives, meaning 
that they are the objects of some unexpressed relation and 
that in analyzing they are adverbial elements of the Second 
class. 

Parse the first class as indirect objects of the verb and 
the second class as adverbial objectives. 

248. Some Prepositions that are used frequently:— 
of, for, toy, at, in, on, to, about, through, over, across, with, 
except, into, under, after, during, beneath, ere, within, via, 
from, toward, concerning, per, according to, versus, under- 
neath, excepting, out of, over against. 

249. A Gwide to Parsing a Preposition:— 

1. A preposition. What does it govern? 

2. It shows the relation between what and what ? 

3. The phrase modifies what ? What kind of an element 
is it? What class? 

250. Parallelism and Comparison of verb and pre- 
position:— 

Verb:— Preposition: — 

1. It governs an objective i. It does not govern an 
element. objective element. 

2. It governs the objective 2. It governs the objective 
case. case. 

3. A transitive verb and its 3. A preposition and its ob- 
object are separate elements in ject are never separate ek- 
analysis. ments in analysis. 



PREPOSITIONS. 



89 



4. The object of a transi- 
tive verb is a noun, pronoun, 
clause, phrase or participle. 

5. A transitive verb is al- 
ways a predicate and agrees 
with its subject. 

6. The object of a transi- 
tive is an objective modifier of 
the verb. 

7. When the object of a 
verb is not expressed the verb 
remains a verb but is intransi- 
tive. 



4. The object of a preposi- 
tion is a noun, pronoun, clause, 
phrase or participle. 

5. A preposition shows the 
relation between its object and 
the word that its phrase modi- 
fies. 

6. The object of a preposi- 
tion is never an objective 
modifier of the preposition. 

7. When the object of a 
preposition is not expressed 
the preposition is not a prepo- 
sition but an adverb. 



EXEECISES 17.* 

1. Parse the prepositions. 

2. Classify all clauses and phrases. 

1. Come at once. 

2. He came from the West Indies. 

3. It came via Honolulu. 

4. We were encouraged by what he said. 

5. Do not wait for an opportunity; work for it. 

6. He said nothing but what is right. 

7. Do you live far from here? 

8. A man's worth should be reckoned by what he is, not by 
what he has. — Beecher. 



Make up sentences to suit the different needs. 



VERBALS. 



Participles and Infinitives are called verhals. 
PARALLELISM AND COMPARISON. 



251. A Participle is a 

word derived from a verb 
and palallels in its use a 
noun, adjective or adverb. 

1. It is an element of the 
First class. 

2. It is never used as a 
predicate, has no subject, and 
no person or number. 

3. As the verb be is to 
verbs in making up the forms 
of verbs, so the participles of 
be are to participles in mak- 
ing up the forms of partici- 
ples : — being loved, having 
been loved. 

4. The verbs be and have 
with their participles help to 
make up all the forms of par- 
ticiples. 

5. The Helpers or auxiliar- 
ies are : — being, having. 

6. There are two participles 
in the English language, the 
Present and the Perfect or the 
third and fourth principal 
parts of verbs. 

7. Participles are classified 
on the basis of the third and 
fourth principal parts of 
verbs : — love, loved, loving, 
loved. 



252. An Infinitive is 

is a word derived from a 
verb and parallels in its 
use a noun, adjective or 
adverb. 

1. It is an element of the 
Second class. 

2. It is never used as a 
predicate, has no subject and 
no person or number. 

3. As the verb be is to 
verbs in making up the forms 
of verbs, so the infinitives of 
be are to infinitives in making 
up the forms of infinitives : — 
to be loved, to have been loved. 

4. The verbs be and have 
with their infinitives help to 
make up all the forms of in- 
finitives. 

5. The Helpers or auxiliar- 
ies are : — to be, to hai'c. 

6. There are two infinitives 
in the English language, the 
Present and the Present Per- 
fect, paralleling the present 
and present perfect tenses of 
verbs. 

7. Infinitives are classified 
on the basis of the present and 
present perfect tenses of 
verbs : — to love, to have loved. 



[90] 



VERBALS, 91 

253. The Participles of a transitive verb are six in 
number:— 

1. The Present participles of love :— 

(1) The Present Active participles are,— Loving; 
Having been loving. 

(2) The Present Passive participle is,— Being loved. 

2. The Perfect participles of love-.— 

(1) The Perfect Active participle is,— Having loved. 

(2) The Perfect Passive participles acre,- Having 
been loved. Loved. 

254. The Infinitives of n transitive verb are six in 
niimiber:— 

1. The Present infinitives of love are:— To love; To be 
loved; To be loving. 

2. The Present Perfect infinitives of love are :— To have 
loved ; To' have been loved ; To have been loving. 

255. The Progressive Form: — 

1. When having heen is placed before the present par- 
ticiple it shows the progressive form: — They having been 
loving virtue all their lives were true to the last. 

2. The present participle is ailways progressive form; 
Working is exercising, ^st 

3. When to he or to have been is placed before the 
present participle it shows the progressive form :— 

"To be loving everybody and everything was her delight: 
To have been loving her would have been right." 

256. The Passive Form: — 

1. As the paissive form of a verb is some form of be 
before the perfect participle, so the passive form of a 
participle is some form of be before the perfect participle: 
— being loved, having been loved. 



92 VERBALS. 

2, The Perfect participle, or fourth principal part, 
when used alone in a sentence is always passive:— He was 
a man loved and respected by all who knew him. 

3. As the passive form of a verb is some form oi he 
before the perfect participle, so the passive form of an 
infinitive is some form othe before the perfect participle : — 
To be loved is an honor. To have been loved would have 
been an honor. 

257. As shown in the outlines, participles and infini- 
tives have an active and passive form which parallels the 
active and passive form of verbs. Parallel progressive 
forms are also shown. 253 254 

258. Neuter Participles are those of the verb he or 
other copulative verb: — being, having been, having been 
being. 

259. The Perfect participle, fourth principal part, of 
a neuter or intransitive verb is rarely, if ever, used cor- 
rectly alone in a sentence, but the fourth principal part of 
a transitive verb is frequentlj'- so used:— A man struck by 
an arrow shot from a cross-bow was found in the asfonies of 
death. 

260. Neuter Infinitives are those of be and some 
other copulative verbs: — to be, to have been, to have been 
being. 

261. Attributive Use:— The active, passive or pro- 
gressive form of a participle or an infinitive may parallel 
a noun or an adjective in its use as an attribute of the 
predicate :— He is to be honored. We are to be excused. 
He was to have been ivorking. She is to have another trial. 
The good time is to come. Gradually art is bei^ig formed. 



93 



Remark: — A Substantive is usually a noun-word, noun-clause or 
noun-phrase. ^^ It is parsed as a noun. "' It is scientific and less con- 
fusing to parse the substantive as a noun, making no further divi- 
sions of it. But in a noun-clause each word may be parsed separ- 
ately and by parallelism the same is true of a noun-phrase. Either 
method is arbitrary and acceptable. The former method is preferred 
for beginners. 

262. Participles and Infinitives of he and other 
copulative verbs may have nouns, pronouns, substantives 
or adjectives after them as attributes. The verbal -and its 
attribute so used are not usually separated in analysis. In 
parsing they should first be parsed together as a substan- 
tive. The attribute element alone is parsed ias a retained 
attribute: — 

1. Being sick is unpleasant. 

2. Being deemed honest is appreciated. 

3. His being a teacher prevented his election. 

4. To be good is to be happy. 

5. His desire is to be a scholar. 

6. To be truthful is to be honest. 

The objective substantive phrase may contain an adjec- 
tive attribute following a verbal : 

1. No one thought it to be wrong. 

2. We know him to be honest. 

2 63. An Infinitive usually has the word to before it. 
It is sometimes called the sign of the infinitive. It is not 
always essential and is often omitted after bid, dare, need, 
let, hear, see, make, feel, help, have, go and please:— 

1. Please tell me. 

2. Bid him hurry. 

3. You need not come. 

4. Go see what she says. 

264. The Present active participle ends in ing:— lov- 
ing, seeing. The present passive participle of be and of 



94 VERBALS. 

some other copulative verbs also ends in ing : being, seem- 
ing, appearing. 

265. The Perfect participle, or the fourth principal 
part of verbs, nsii-ally ends in ed, d, t, n or en. ^os 

266. There are other suhstantives which need further 
attention perhaps (1) Where the infinitive is immediately 
preceded by the objective form. In parsing they may be 
parsed together as a substantive. The infinitive is a re- 
tained i nfiniti ve : — 

1. I saw him run. 

2. We heard her speak. 

3. We saw the house burn. 

Parse him as in the objective form and the base of the noun 
element, modified by to run, an adjective infinitive. 

(2) Where a noun or pronoun follows an infinitive 
meaning the same person or thing as the noun or pronoun 
preceding the infinitive it forms a substantive: — 

1. I knew him to he John. 

2. She expected it to he him. 

Parse him as in the objective form and the base of the noun 
element, modified by to be an adjective infinitive, and John as a 
retained attribute. 

(3) Where the phrase beginning with the preposition 
for becomes the subject or predidaite, either directly or by 
apposition, it is a substantive : 

1. For him to go is dangerous. 

2. It is easy for you to laugh. 

3. My wish is for him to be excused. 

Parse for as a preposition without any antecedent term of rela- 
tion. "" him as the object of for and base of the phrase, and to go 
as an adjective infinitive modifying him. 

267. The Verb and Participle : Where inseparable. 
In the passive and progressive forms of the verb, the 



VERBALS. 95 

verb and participle are never parsed separately; they are 
a grammatidal unit— a verb :— 

1. She might have been studying her lesson. 

2. I am reading Shakespeare. 

3. The letter was written carelessly. 

4. The lion zvas killed by the hunter. 

1. Participles. 

1. Subject, noun use, Playing is exercising. " ''^ 

2. Attribute, noun use, Playing is exercising. '' °" 

3. Object of a verb, noun use. They commenced plowing. " "" 

4. Object of a preposition, noun use, He was an expert at 
playing ball. '=" ^= 

5. Appositive, noun use. His task, carrying coal, is finished. ^ 

6. Substantive including noun, His being a dozen is ridicu- 



lous. 



Noun modifier, adjective use. The man frozvning, said no. 



8. Pronoun modifier, adjectiev use, Singing she wrought. "' "'^ 

9. x'Vttribute, adjective use. The house is fe^^Mgr &i«7f. "" "" 

10. Verb modifier, adverb use. She went running. ^* "" 

11. Independent use. Boating! Racing! ^'^ 

12. Substantive including adjective, His being kind is right. '°" 

2. Infinitives: 

1. Subject, noun use. To try is honorable. ^^ '° "" 

2. Attribute, jjoww use, His work is to deliver papers. ^^ "'- 

3. Object of a verb, noun use, She loves to teach. ^ "' 

4. Object of a preposition, noun use, He would do anything 
except to eat. ^ ^- 

5. Object of a particiole. noun, use, Trying to do is doing 
right. '' ''" "° 

6. Object of an infinitive, noun use, To have a friend is 
noble. "" 

7. Appositive, now;? use. My desire to cat has left me. " '"* 

8. Substantive including noun, To be a Haycr is his desire. ^" 

9. Noun modifier, adjective use, The house fo buy is the one 
that suits you. "'* 

10. Pronoun modifier, adjective use. We saw him buy the 
property. "'^'' 



96 VERBALS. 

11. Adverb modifier, adverb use, She delighted to do good. 

283 80!l 23 

12. Adjective modifier, adverb use, He was solicitous to know. 

295 108 21 

13. Adverb modifier, adverb use. He was faithful enough to 
trust me. ^'^ ^* 

14. Participle modifier, adverb use. She hurrying to tell me 
came in. ="' ''' ^ 

15. Infinitive modifier, adverb use. To go /o see that man is 
useless. "^ ''" ^ 

16. Verb modifier, adverb use, He went to see the races. ^^ '* ** 

17. Attribute, adjective use. The house is fo &^ &mj7^. '"^ 

18. Substantive including adjective. To be truthful is honor- 
able. =^= 

19. Independent use, To lie to me! Rooms to rent! '"* 

A Use that Needs Watching: 

When a participle following a copulative verb denoting 
the same thing as the subject it is a noun-attribute; if it 
describes the subject it is an adjective attribute: — 

Working is exercising. Exercising is working. Her ap- 
pearance was striking. He stood wondering. 

It looks like working and exercising show continuance in 
action. They do, but it is the form of the participle and 
not of the verb. 253 255 

268. Troublesome Terms that are often confusing 
to students. The les.s confusing terms used in a.ny science 
the nearer it is to perfection. 

1. A Participial Adverb is one that modifies the manner of an 
action. It is used as an adverb. 

2. A Participial Adjective means one that has not lost entirely 
its power of action at the time it modifies. It is used as an ad- 
jective. 

3. A Pure adjective participle means one that seems to have 
lost its power of government entirely and usually modifies a noun 
or a pronoun. It is used as an adjective. 

4. A Verbal noun means a participle which does not govern, 



VERBALS. 97 

but merely names an action or expression, and is applied also to 
infinitives. It is used as a noun. 

5. A Gerund means a participle used either as subject, attribute, 
object or appositive, and at the same time it may govern an object 
or have modifiers that are not objects. It is used as a noun. 

269. To Clear Away all Confusion, remember this: 
Participles and Infinitives are nsed either as Nouns, Ad- 
jectives or Adverbs, alivays. All discussions should tend to 
emphasize this fact. Consult the Working Basis. ^ 

270. Summary of Uses of either Participles or In- 
finitives : — 

1. They may be modified by other elements and govern 
and be modified by objective elements. 

2. They may modify nouns, substantives, pronouns, 
verbs and adverbs, and at the same time take as objects 
either nouns, pronouns, noun clauses or noun phrases. 

3. When they parallel nouns they are either the sub- 
ject, attribute, object or appositive. 

4. When they parallel adjectives they modifj^ nouns, 
pronouns, or substantives and sometimes they are used as 
adjective attributes. 

5. When they parallel adverbs they modify either verbs, 
adjectives, participles, infinitives or adverbs. 

Parallel and Comparative Uses of the Verbals:* 

271. Participle, 272. Infinitive. 

I. If a noiDi it may be: — i. If a noiDi it may be: — 

(i) The subject: Making (i) The subject: To deceive 

promises is not keeping them. is wrong. 

(2) The attribute: The vil- (2) The attribute; To reason 

lage lay sleeping. is tu think. 



Extend this comparison fui'Uior slioulil it seem necessary. 



98 



(3) Object of a verb: He did 
repairing. 

(4) Object of a preposition: 
He was accused of fighting. 

2. If an adjective it may mod- 
ify:- 

( 1 ) A noun : The boy driving 
the horse is my son. 

(2) A pronoun ; We heard 
him calling for help. 

(3) It may be used as an at- 
tribute ; The child lay dying in 
her arms. 

3. If an adverb it may modify : 
( I ) A verb ; She came rust- 
ling through the hall. 



(3) Object of a verb; She ex- 
pects tc zvin. 

(4) Object of a preposition ; 
Nothing but to run will save us. 

2. If an adjective it may mod- 
ify:- 
(i) A noun; She has apples 
to sell. 

(2) A pronoun ; It is a place 
to be avoided. 

(3) It may be used as an at- 
tribute ; He is to be educated. 



3. If an adverb it may modify: 
(i) A verb; He stopped to 
ask a question. 

(2) An adverb ; That apple is 
ripe enough to eat. 

(3) An adjective; She was 
anxious to know. 

(4) A participle ; He running 
to sec fell over the railing. 



273. The chief difference between a verb and an in- 
finitive is this : A verb is always a principal element ; never 
dependent. 



274. A Guide to Parsing a Participle: 

1. A Participle. 

2. Is it Present or Perfect? 

3. Is it Active, Passive or Neuter? 

4. Is it used as a noun? Adjective? Adverb? 

5. If a noun is it subject, attribute, object or appositive? 

6. .If an adjective what does it modify? Or is it an 
attribute ? 

7. If an adverb what does it modify? 

8. What kind of element is it? 



275. A Guide to Parsing an Infinitive: 

1. An Infinitive. 

2. Is it Present or Present Perfect? 

3. Is it Active, Passive or Neuter? 

4. Is it used as a noun? Adjective? Adverb? 

5. If a noun is it subject, attribute, object or appositive? 

6. .If ;an adjective what does it modify? Or is it an 
attribute ? 

7. If an adverb what does it modify? 

8. What kind of element is it? 

EXERCISES 18.* 

1. Review the Working Basis. 

2. Review Infinitives and Participles. 

3. Tell all you know 'about the participles and Infini- 
tives, the nouns and pronouns, the verbs, and the preposi- 
tions in the following sentences : 

4. Classify the clauses and phrases :— 

1. It is easy to find fault. 

2. He was about to open his mouth. 

3. We have striven to please you, but you are hard to please. 

4. I seem to be considering twenty different cases, and in 
reality I only consider one. 

5. English wit consists in saying very jocular things in a 
solemn manner. 

6. It seems to me useless to recall what he said. 

7. We feel that he believes nothing without reason. 

8. They arose gradually without perceiving the slope. 

9. I am quite sure that nowadays men laugh at those who 
reason on definitions ; but to introduce a new idea of definition is to 
introduce a new idea of the nature of things ; it is to tell us what 
things are, of what they are composed, and into what elements they 
are capable of being resolved. 



* Make up sentences to suit the different needs. 

Students should be encouraged to illustrate by composing sen- 
tences. 



)0 VERBALS. 

10. There sat along the forms, like morning doves 
That sun their milky bosoms on the thatch, 
A patient range of pupils. 

— Tennyson. 

Lesson in Substantives:— 26 
Noun Phrases: ^^ 

1. No one thought it to be zvrong. ^°' '"' -'" 

2. He likes to eat. "" 

3. We saw the boys run. '"' ^^ 

4. His being a farmer aided his election. '" ^^ 

5. They desire him to be educated. "' ^''' 

6. We have know:n her to be loved. "" ^ 

7. To be cheerful is to be joyful. '" "" '' ='» 

8. It is an honor to be deemed zvorthy. '"^ 

9. To be educated is right. ''' ^'''- 

10. They know whom to trust. "' 

11. Was it right for me to comef "' 

12. We saw the tree fall. "" =»« 

13. Being a learner is honorable. '" -"" 

14. To be true is to be loyal. "" " '"' '"' 

15. She believed it to be a duty to go. "' -"'' 

16. His desire is to be a manly man. " '"^ 

17. We saw the sparks fly. "" ="" 

18. She expected her to be Mary. "' ^" 

19. We believed it to be impossible. "" """ 

20. It is easy for you to find fault. '"' 

21. They told me to go (to me). "" 



ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS. 



276. There ai-e two general classes of adjectives: — 

1. Descriiptiye,— Beautiful flowers. 

2. Definitive, — Those flowers. 

277. A Descriptive Adjective denotes some quality 
belonging to a noun, pronoun, noun-clause or noun-phrase : 
Good boys. Beautiful fields. 

A Predicate Adjective is an adjective attribute which 
describes the subject but does not modify it as an ele- 
ment: 83 

The road is rough. To play is pleasant. That he lives is 
true. 

1. Common Adjectives are usually simple adjectives: — 
strong, good, had, old, tall, great, robust, 

2. Proper Adjectives axe derived from proper nouns: — 
English laws. Ametncan industries. Chinese laundry. 

3. A Participial Adjective is a participle placed before 
the noun it modifies, its use being shifted to that of an 
adjective -. — Singing birds delight us. Moving pictures in- 
terest us. 

4. Compound Adjectives are words thrown together 
and having the value and use of a single adjective: — An 
unlooTced-for occurrence. A half-starved dog. A life-giving 
power. 

5. Any element of whatever class is an adjective ele- 
ment if it modifies a noun or pronoun. 



* Consult the dictionary for tlie definition of any adjective word 
as may be desired. 

[101] 



102 ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS. 

DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES. 

278. A Definitive Adjective as a modifying ele- 
ment describes no quality:— 77t is man. Each boy. Four 
hours. 

1. The is the definite article and points out definitely 
what it modifies: — The man. The boy ran over the bridge. 
A or An is the indefinite article and points out indefinitely 
or in a general way what it modifies :—A horse is in a field. 
An ox draws a wagon. 

2. .A Pronominal Adjective is one which may. without 
an article prefixed, represent a noun understood -.—all per- 
sons. Each teacher. 

(1) Demonstratives point out objects definitely. They 
are: — this, that, these, those, former, latter, both, same, 
yon, yonder. 

(2) Distributives represent separate nouns. They are: 
each, every, either, neither. 

(3) Indefinites modify nouns in a general way. They 
arfe: own, one, no, none, some, any, all, enough, few, 
much, little, certain, and nearly a score of others. 

3. Numeral Adjectives express number or order defi- 
nitely. 340 

(1) The Cardinal Numerals denote simply the number 
of objects: — two, ten. 

(2) The Ordiyial Numerals show position in a series: — 
second, tenth. 

(3) The Multiplicative Numerals tell how many fold: — 
two-fold, ten-fold. 

279. Comparison of Adjectives. 

1. Comparison is inflection to show different degrees. 

2. There are three degrees of comparison: — 



ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS. 103 

Asicending : Descending : 

(1) Positive. (1) Positive. 

(2) Comparative. (2) Comparative. 

(3) Superlative. (3) Superlative. 

3. The Positive degree is shown by the simple adjective : 
A 'pretty lass. A beautiful flov^er. An Jionorahle man. 

4. The Comparative degree is shown by er, more, less, 
and is a comparison between two. 

1. This is the prettier lass of the two. 

2. Of the two, this is the more beautiful flower. 

3. This is the less honorable man of the two. 

5. The Superlative degree* is shown by est, most, least, 
and is a comparison between three or more. 

1. This is the prettiest girl of the three. 

2. This is the most beautiful flower of all. 

3. This is the most honorable man of the company. 

6. When the degrees are not formed as above the com- 
parison is called Irregular Comparison:— 

111, worse, worst. 
Good, better, best. 
Much, more, most. 
Hind, hinder, hindmost. 

280. A Redundant Adjective has more than one form 
for the same degree of compaxison:— -near, nearer, nearest 
or next; clear, clearer, clearest or more clear, most clear. 

281. The Interrogative Adjectives are ivhat and which 
placed inunediately before nouns in asking questions:— 
What star did he discover ? Which question is it ? 



♦ Exceptional. The viost unkindest cut of all. To prove whose blood 
is reddest his or Ta.\nQ.- Shakespeare. Whose god is strongest thine or mine. 
— Milton. 



104 ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS. 

282. The Exclamiatory Adjectives are what and what 
an (a) in exclamations: — What music! What a face! What 
an idea ! 

283. Nonns sometimes shift to an adjective:— A silver 
suture. A diamond ring. The Sunday paper. It was a 
perfect 3Iay day. 

284. A Relative Clause parallels in its use an adjec- 
tive and is a clause that always contains a relative pronoun, 
ivho, which, that or as, referring to a noun, pronoun, or 
suhstanitive as its antecedent. It is an adjective element 
of the Third. Class. "« iso le 27 

An Appositive Clause parallels a noun in apposition, 
all nouns, pronouns, noun-clauses or noun-phrases in appo- 
sition are adjective elements in analysis. ^^^ ^^i 

285. Adjective Elements. 

Adjectives. 

Nouns in the possessive case. 

Pronouns in the possessive case. 

Relative Clauses. 

Infinitives modifying nouns or pronouns. 

Participles modifying nouns or pronouns. 

Prepositional Phrases modifying nouns or pronouns. 

All Appositive Elements. 

286. A Relative Clause has the value of a single part 
of speech and parallels in its use an adjective always. 

Equivalent Terms and Expressions of a Relative 
clause:— 

287. A Relative Clause is always a (an) 

Subordinate clause. Subordinate proposition. 

Adjectival sentence. Subordinate sentence. 

Dependent sentence. Subordinate element. 

Adjective element. Third class element. 

Adjective proposition. Dependent clause. 



ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS. 105 

Adjective Clauses: — 

1. Persons who are kind should be honored. 

2. The house which stands on the hill belongs to my brother. 

3. He received his pay for as many days as lie zvorked. 

4. He zvho is honest is truthful. 

5. It is not right that he should be treated so. 

6. The thought that he would succeed stimulated him. 

7. The fact that she is kind is greatly appreciated. 

Analysis : — 

I. Persons zvho are kind is the complex subject. 

persons is the simple subject modified by 

zaho are kind an edjective element. It is a relative clause "' 
of which 

zvho is the subject, 

are kind is the simple predicate, 

kind is the attribute and are is the copula. 

should he honored is the simple predicate of the Principal 
sentence. "' 
7. Tlie fact that she is kind is the complex subject. 

fact is the simple subject modified by 

the a simple adjective element, and also by 

that she is kind an appositive adjective clause, of which 

she is the subject, 

is kind is the simple predicate, 

kind is the attribute and is is the copula. 

that is independent, introduces the appositive noun-clause. 

is greatly appreciated is the complex predicate of the Princi- 
pal sentence. 

is appreciated is the simple predicate modified by 

greatly a simple adverbial element. 

288. An Adjective Phrase lias the value of a single 
part of speech and parallels in its use an adjective always, 
unless it be an appositive, in which Case it parallels a 7ioun 
in apposition. 121 

Equivalent Terms and Expressions of an Adjective 



106 ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS. 

289. An Adjective Phrase is always a (an) 

Adjective element. Adjectival phrase. 

Dependent phrase. Element of the Second Class. 

Dependent element. 

Adjective Phrases: — 

I. A man of Tyre is dying. 



His desire to conquer is intense. 

We saw the air-ship fly. 

Did you hear the man call his dog? 

It is right to zvork. 

It is pleasant to see progress. 

He is a favorite poet of a nation. 



Analysis : — 

I. A man of Tyre is the complex subject. 

man is the simple subject modified by 

A an adjective element, and also by 

of Tyre an adjective element of the second class. .\ phrase. 

is dying is the simple predicate. 
5. It to work is the complex subject. 

it is the simple subject modified by 

to work an appositive adjective element of the second class. 
A noun-phrase. 

is right is the simple predicate 

right is the attribute and is is the copula. 

290. A Guide to Parsing an Adjective:— 

1. Adjective. 

2. Is it Descriptive or Definitive? 

3. If Descriptive, is it common, proper or participial? 

4. Compare it and tell its degree of comparison. 

5. If Definitive, is it article, pronominal or numeral? 

6. If Article, is it definite or indefinite? 

7. If Pronominal, is it demonstrative, distributive or 
indefinite ? 

8. If Numeral, is it cardinal, ordinal, or multiplicative? 

9. What does it modify? Or is it an attribute? 

10. What kind of element is it? 



ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS. 107 

EXERCISES 19.* 

1. Review Relative pronouns. 

2. Review the Possessive case. 

3. Review appositives. 

4. Talk over equivalent terms and expressions. 

5. Parse the nouns, pronouns, verbs, participles, infinitives, 
and adjectives,, and classify all clauses: — 

1. Were he dead his biography might be written. 

2. We smile to hear long, learned words come from these 
rosy lips. 

3. A race so constituted was predisposed to Christianity. 

4. We do not desire to go more quickly. 

5. The princess is obliged to release the young man. 

6. We do not see a fact engendering another fact, but a fact 
accompanying another fact. 

7. I venture to say that the theory is perfect. 

8. He lives to eat, and eats to live. 

9. He told me when to come. 

10. It is a brave thing to understand something of what we see, 

11. He desired to repeat what he had heard. 

12. Johnson the lawyer was elected m.ayor of our city. 

13. He persists in denying that he was elected. 

14. No violent extremes endure ; a sober moderation stands 
secure. 

15. I who speak to you am your brother. 

16. What is the reason that I have succeeded. 

17. Who said what does it matter? 

20. That which he himself accumulated lasted for a short time. 



Make up sentences to suit the different needs of students. 



ADVERB ELEMENTS. 



291. An Adverb is a word that modifies the expres- 
sion of a part of speech with regard to time, place, cause, 
manner, degree or concession. It most frequently modifies 
the verb. 

292. Classification of Adverbs 

1. Time: — then, afterwards, always, soon, etc. 

2. Place:— here, there, down, up, etc. 

3. Cause : —accordingly, therefore, wherefore, why, etc. 

4. Manner:— well, faithfully, so, stemlj^, etc. 

5. Degree:— little, much, enough, almost, etc. 

6. Concession:— however, indeed, nevertheless, etc. 

293. To Determine an Adverb of 

1. Time, ask Wlien? How long^ or How often? etc. 

2. Place, ask Where ? Whence '' or Whither ? etc. 

3. Cause, ask Wliy ? 

4. Manner, ask How? 

5. Degree, ask How much? or How Little? How near? 
etc. 

6. Concession, ask Whyfore? or On Avhat conditions? 

etc. 

Further Testing : — Sometimes, in difficult cases, besides using 
the above tests try whether the word, clause or phrase under con- 
sideration fills the use of a noun or an adjective. If it is neither 
a noun nor an adjective use, it must be an iidverb, because all modi- 
fying elements are used as nouns, adjectives or adverbs. 

[108] 



ADVERB ELEMENTS. 109 

294. Independent Adverbs:— Some adverbs do not 
modify anything. Neither are they nouns or adjectives, 
they are then independent:— ^^s Are you angry? No. Are 
you afraid? Yes. 

295. An Adverb is a word wliich modifies a verb, ad- 
jective, participle, infinitive, or adverb. 

I. He acts zvisely. 



It is true indeed. 

Talking hurriedly he came up the steps. 

To drive fast is dangerous. 

He has very little experience. 



296. An Adverb frequently modifies a prepositional 
phrase :— Th.e dog ran nearly across the meadow. I shall 
notice them m.ore at length, 

1. I saw him frequently. 

2. He comes daily. 

3. I am going home. ^" 

4. You have many more chances. 

5. She came almost to where I stood. 

Almost modifies the prepositional phrase to where I stood. 

297. The sometimes modifies an adjective or an adverb 
in the comparative or superlative degree. It is then an 
adverb: — The more I think of him, the less I think of him. 
He came the quickest. ^^^ 

298. Interrogative Adverbs are those used in ques- 
tions, as When did you sleep ? How lare you ? Where did 
he go? 

299. Comparison: — 

1. The Comparison of an adverb is its inflection to show 
different degrees. 

2. Adverbs and adjectives are parallel in their degrees 
of comparison: — 



110 ADVERB ELEMENTS. 

3. Degrees of Comparison:— 
Ascending : Descending : 

(1) Positive. (1) Positive. 

(2) Comparative. (2) Comparative. 

(3) Superlative. (3) Superlative. 

4. The Positive degree is shown by the simple adverb: 
She sings sweetly. He came soon. I see far. 

5. The Comparative degree is shown by er, more, less: 
She sings more sweetly than he. He came sooner than I. 
He sees farther. 

6. The Superlative degree is shown by est, most, least: 
She sings most sweetly. He came the soonest of any. They 
see farthest. 

7. When the degrees are not formed as above the com- 
parison is called Irregular Comparison: — 

Badly, worse, zvorst; Little, less, least; Much, more, most; III, 
worse, worst. 

300. The Relative Adverb has been regarded as a 
relative pronoun in its uses as: "The place where she lives 
is far away." "The time when he left is uncertain." 

It is now decided that these clauses are appositives in 
their uses, and that where and when simply introduce the 
appositive clauses; place and where she lives are two ex- 
pressions for the same thing in the stracture of this sen- 
tence. Also, time and when he left are expressions meaning 
the same thing in the second sentence: — 

1. The place (is) where she lives. 

2. Where she lives (is) the place. 

1. The time (is) when he left. 

2. When he left (is) the time. 

1. The place zvhere she lives is far away. 

2. The time zvhen he left is iincertair.. * '^ 



ADVERB ELEMENTS. Ill 

Point out the Appositives:— 

1. The place is beautiful where Davis lives. 

2. The place where Davis lives is beautiful. 

3. It is beautiful where Davis lives. 
4 It, where Davis lives, is beautiful. 

5. The time ivhen it occurred is not certain. 

6. It is not certain when it occurred. 

Words most commonly found introducing but never connecting 
these appositive adjective clauses are where, when, wherein, whereat. 

It is now decided that to be a relative adjective clause a clause 
should contain a relative pronoun. 

301. About the Conjunctive Adverb: — 

1. This word has gone through quite a transitional per- 
iod. Once it wais made to connect a principal and a sub- 
ordinate clause and to modify the verb in each clause. Next 
it was made to connect the principal and subordinate clause 
and to modify a word in the subordinate dause. Now it is 
decided that in no wtay does it connect the principal and 
subordinate clauses; that every clause has the value of a 
single part of speech; and that no part of speech is ever 
connected to what it modifies. 

2. The term conjunctive adverb is now misleading, and 
should be abandoned since it refers to a single adverb only 
which modifies some word in a subordinate clause like any 
other adverb does. It has no connecting power whatever. 

I. Subject clause, — When he comes is known by her. 



Attribute clause, — The question is, zvhen does he come. 
Objective clause, — She knows when he comes. 
Adjective clause, — The time when he comes is known by her. 
Adverbial clause, — She smiles when he comes. 



302. There are five words which are uniformly ad- 
verbs that may introduce clauses:— /«ow, why, when, where 
and whence. 

These words may introduce subject, attribute, objective, 
appositive {adjective) and adverbial clauses. 



112 AD^^RB ELEMENTS. 

These words are not eonneciives. 
A connective is never a modifying element. ^^ ^o 
They are parsed as adverbs and in analysis ; they are ad- 
verbial elements of the First Class. 

A Clause Adverb is usually found in an adverbial or 
a noun clause. "^ ^"^ 

303. Other words introducing adverbial clauses, ad- 
jective clauses, objective clauses, attribute clauses or sub- 
ject clauses, usually do not modify anything:— 

1. Adverbial clause, — He came that he might assist tis. 

2. Adjective clause, — His desire that ive should go is intense. 
Adjective clause, — The man zvho is lionest is truthful. 

3. Objective clause, — I know that it is raining. 

4. Attribute clause, — The belief is that times zvill change. 

5. Subject clause. — That times arc hard is undeniable. 

304. Parallelism: — 

1. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, adverbs, partici- 
ples or infinitives. 

2. Adverb Clauses modify verbs, adjectives, adverbs, 
participles or infinitives. 

3. Adverb Phrases modify verbs, adjectives, adverbs, 
participles or infinitives. 

305. An Adverb Clause is a clause with the value of 
a single part of speech, and parallels in its use an adverb 
always: — 

306. Equivalent Terms and Expressions of an Ad- 
verb cla.use: — 

Adverbial clause. Subordinate element. 

Adverbial sentence. Dependent sentence. 

Subordinate proposition. Dependent clause. 

Subordinate sentence. Dependent proposition. 

Subordinate clause. Third class element. 



ADVERB ELEMENTS. 113 

Adverbial Clauses: — 

1. // / zvere you I would not go to Europe. 

2. You act as if you zvere pleased. 

3. I am older than you are (old). 

4. They hurried that they might assist us. 

5. They came znjheii they were called. ■ 

6. I would pay you if I could. 

7. He went where duty called him. 

8. The people cheered as he passed. 

Analysis : — 

I. /is the subject. 

would not go to Europe if I were you is the complex 

predicate. 
zi'ould go is the simple predicate modified by 
not a simple aderbial element and also by 
to Europe an adverbial element of the second class, and 

also by 
if I zvere yoti an adverbial element of the third class. It is 

an adverbial clause. ^'^ '"^ 
if introduces the adverbial clause if I zvere you. 
5. They is the subject. 

ca)ne zvheii they zvere called is the complex predicate. 

came is the simple predicate modified by 

when they zvere called an adverbial element of the third 

class. It is an adverbial clause and parallels an adverb 

of which 
they is the simple subject. 
were called zvhen is the complex predicate. 
zvere called is the simple predicate modified by 
zvhen a simple adverbial element of the first class. '"" 

307. An Adverbial Phrase bas the value of a single 
part of speech and parallels in its use an adverb always. 

308. Equivalent Terms and Expressions of an Ad- 
verbial phrase: — 

Adverbial element. Second Class element. 

Adverb phrase. Dependent element. 

Adverbial phrase. 



114 ADVERB ELEMENTS. 

Adverbial Phrases: — 

1. I left before sunrise. 

2. They came too late to recite. 

3. She came to consult her lawyer. 

4. The sky was red zviih flame. 

5. Are you ready to start? 

6. We stopped to hear the music. 

Analysis : — 

I. /is the subject. 

left before sunrise is the complex predicate. 

left is the simple predicate modified by 

before sunrise an adverbial element of the second class. It 
is an adverbial prepositional phrase. 
6. We is the subject. 

stopped to hear the music is the complex predicate. 

stopped is the simple predicate modified by 

to hear the music a complex adverbial element of which 

to hear is the base modified by 

the music a complex objective element of which 

music is the base modified by 

the a simple adiective element of the first class 

to hear is an adverb-infinitive; it parallels in use an 
adverb. 

309. A Guide for Parsing an Adverb:— 

1. Adverb. 

2. What does it modify? 

3. What kind of an element is it? 



EXERCISES 20.* 

1. Drill thoroughly on how to tell an adverb. 

2. Pai^e the adverbs and classify all elaiLses and phrases 
in the following sentences: — 



* Make up sentences containing adverbs as conditions indicate. 



ADVERB ELEMENTS. 115 

1. Who comes there? 

2. The -wind blows fitriously. 

3. The sun shines brightly. 

4. Tell me quickly if you are in a hurry. 

5. I came hurriedly that you might know who I am. 

6. She was so frightened that she could scarcely speak. 

7. Where the accident occurred is not known definitely. 

8. He expects to live comfortably in the cottage just over 



the hill. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



310. A Conjunction is a word that connects :—awd, 
hut, or, nor. 

1. It is never a modifying element. 

2. It has a coordinating use, always. 

3. Connected elements never modify each other. 

311. Parallelism:— The same reasoning that proves 
that a subject clause is never connected to anj^ element, or, 
that an attribute clause can not be connected in any way 
to anji;hing it modifies or, that an objective clause can not 
be connected to its governing word or, that an appositive 
clause can not be connected to the term it modifies, or, that 
a relative clause can not be connected to the antecedent of 
the pronoun, proves also that an adverbial clause is in no 
Avay connected to any term it modifies. 

312. Uses of Conjunctions. 

1. Conjunctions should always connect elements that 
have the same parallel uses; that is, they should always 
connect elements that have the uses of either nouns, adjec- 
tives or adverbs; and elements which do not modify each 
other but have the same uses: — 

(1) Sulbjects to subjects. 

(2) Predicates to predicates. 

(3) Attributes to attributes. 

(4) Objects to objects. 

(5) Appositives to appositives. 

(6) Adjectives to adjectives. 

(7) Adverbs to adverbs 

[116] 



CONJUNCTIONS. 117 

and so on, always connecting- elements of the same parallel 
uses irrespective of whether they are elements of the First, 
Third or Second Class. 

Some Illustrations : The words, clauses or phrases con- 
nected, 'are italicized, and correspond in number to the 
above :— 312 

1. John and / are picking berries. 

2. That toad runs and jumps at the same time. 

3. He is old and infirm. 

4. We saw birds and flozvers and trees. 

5. Adams the scholar and statesman lives on Central Avenue. 

6. That large and beautiful forest has disappeared. 

7. We walked along sloivly and cautiously. 

or 

1. That he is blind and that I am old are evident. 

2. The teacher talked and explained for over an hour. 

3. The facts are, / am tired and / must rest. 

4. He claimed that I was zcrong and that he zvas right. 

5. Her wishes that she should live and that she should be of 
use were to be granted. 

6. The man zcho is honest and zvho is truthful will be honored. 

7. He came zi'heiiei'er he pleased or zdien he zxjas called. 

An element of the First class may be connected to an 
element of the Second class, etc., but they should have 
parallel uses: — 

1. He spoke of going and of zvhat he zvould say. 

2. She writes legibly and in a rapid manner. 

2, They may connect sentences which do not modify, 
and so form compound sentences, ^si 

1. We knozc that it is trite and zve all hope that you may 
succeed. 

2. The boys gathered flozi'ers and tlie girls carried tlioii home. 

3. If'e hurried but ice arrived too late. 



118 CONJUNCTIONS. 

313. The Typical Conjunctions are aiid, but, or, 
nor. They can often be used directly preceding other con- 
necting words, and many times may be substituted for 
them: 

1. He was old (and) yet he was active. 

2. The task is difficult (but) nevertheless it must be done. 

314. Words often used as Conjunctions: — 

And, but, or, nor, yet, for, also, moreover, then, still, 
hence, consequently, accordingly, however, furthermore, 
nevertheless, otherwise, as well as, likewise, so, besides, 
therefore, both — and, either — or, neither — nor, whether — 
or, only— but. 

The latter five are pairs of conjunctions :— 

1. She not only tried but succeeded. 

Not only— hut is a conjunction. It connects tried and 
succeeded. 

2. They neither laughed nor cried. Neither— nor is a 
conjunction. It connects laughed and cried. 

315. Words often used as parts of clauses to introduce 
or to modify some element in them: After, although, as, 
ere, because, lest, for, if, than, since, lest, so, that, unless, 
whereas, as if, as well as, if then, etc. 

Many combinations of words aire used with the value .and 
use of a single conjunction or introductory word. Look 
first for sentences — a subject and predicate — whether more 
than one, etc., then for the connective and so of other 
elements, remembering that connected elements never mod- 
ify each other. 

316. Many words sometimes used as conjunctions arc 
frequently used as other parts of speech, usually adverbs; 
but use must determine what part of speech every word is. 



CONJUNCTIONS^ 119 

and when not a conjunction reason that it must parallel in 
its use either a noun, adjective or adverh, and classify it 
accordingly. 3 

317. A Guide to Parsing a Conjunction:— 

1. A conjunction. 

2. What words does it connect ? 

3. What clauses or phrases, if any. does it connect? 

4. What sentences, if any, does it connect ? 

EXERCISES 21. 
Test: 

1. Do conjunctions ever modify? 

2. Is an element of any class ever connected to what it modi- 
fies? 

3. Do connected elements ever modif}' each other? ^ 

4. Does every clause have the value of a single part of speech? 
Which parts of speech? 

5. Is there such a thing as a conjunctive adverb? Relative 
adverb ? 

6. Is there such a thing as a subordinate connective? Why? ^"^ 

7. Name some words that are usually adverbs that introduce 
subordinate clauses. 



120 CONJUNCTIONS. 

EXERCISES 22.* 

1. They stand on the brink of the ocean of thought and 
power, but they never take the single step that would bring them 
there. 

2. I am and I have; but I find I did not. 

3. It takes a good deal of time to eat or to sleep, or to earn 
a hundred dollars, but it takes a very little time to entertain a hope 
and an insight which becomes the light of our life. 

4. Venus loves the whispers 
Of plighted youth and maid, 
In April's ivory moonlight 

Beneath the chestnut shade. — Maccnday. 

Suggestive Exercises: — 

1. The first, second and third sentences are compound. Why?'" 

2. What does but connect in the first sentence? '" 

3. What does and connect in the first sentence? 

4. What do and and but connect in the second sentence? 

5. What do or, or, and and connect in the third sentence? 

6. What does and connect in the fourth sentence? 

7. What kind of clause is that zvoidd bring them there? Why? 

176 285 

8. What kind of clause is / did not? Why? '"' 

9. Name all prepositional phrases in the first and third sen- 
tences and tell what each modifies. 

10. Name the appositive infinitives in the third sentence. What 
kind of elements are they? "' 

11. Name a relative clause in the first sentence, and also in the 
third sentence; what does each modify? " "^° ^ 

12. Parse the prepositions in each sentence. ^*' 

13. Tell the case of they, step, thai, I, it, to eat, deal, dollars, 
hope, insight, which, light, Venus, ivhispers, April. 

14. Parse loves in full. ^^^ 

15. Parse the adjectives in the fourth sentence. '^ 



* The Socratic method Ls always valuable in developing the power 
of recall, and reason. 



INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS. 



318. Any word, clause or phrase not performing any 
use in the strnctnre of a sentence is an independent ele- 
ment. 

319. Interjections. 

1. They are always independent elements. 

2. A few examples are : ! Oh ! Ah ! Hello ! Good by ! 
Amen! Indeed! Alias! Umph! Humph! Hey! Eh! 

3. They are usually expressions of some impulsive 
thought. Many of them are never spelled in the dictionary. 
They have hut meager uses compared with the other parts 
of speech. They seem to be thrown into our language in 
such a way as to add little, if any help, to either govern- 
ment or agreement. 

320. A Guide to Parsing an Interjection, or any In- 
dependent element:— 

1. Name it. 

2. Tell that it is independent. 

321. The following are usually independent elements: 

1. Words introducing subject clauses: That he is young 
is no crime. 

2. Words introducing attributive clauses : The trouble 
was that he had forgotten. 

3. AVords introducing objective clauses : He believes 
that he can accomplish the work. 

4. Words introducing appositive clauses: The belief 
that he is rigTht sustains him. 

[121] 



122 INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS. 

5. Words introducing adverbial clauses with the excep- 
tions of how, ivhy, when, tvhere. whence, and a few others: 
He came that he might assist ns. 

The words how, ivhy, tvhen, vhcre and whence are excep- 
tions also in all other clauses, since their uses are usually 
that of adverbs. ^*^- 

6. Participles, infinitives, or prepositional phrases in 
parenthetical expressions, and sometimes in introductory 
expressions are usually independent: Believing as I do, 
there can be no agreement. To be sure, I heard about it. 
In reality, I am not certain. I do not know, to tell the 
truth, what it was. 

7. Participles, infinitives or prepositional phrases by ex- 
clamation or position: Birds flying! Razors to sharpen! 
In reality! About the Guns! 

8. The word as used between appositives is independent. 
He as author, signed the writing. 

9. An adverb is sometimes independent, ^^-i ^Vell, what 
do you say? 

322. The Nominative -Absolute Case is the case of 
a noun, pronoun, or substantive used independently, and 
is in the Nominative case form. ^^-^ 

323. A Noun may be independent of case relations in 
different ways: — 

1. By direct address, — 3/ar)/, come to me. 

2. Bj^ exclamation, — Oh, happy thought! 

3. By pleonasm, — G'acZ, a troop shall overcome him. 

4. By position, — ire&sfer'.s' Dictionary. The Bible. 
Congressional Records. 

5. With a participle,— The chairman being absent we 
transacted no business. 



INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS. 123 

324. Other Forms than the nominative-case forms are 
sometimes -used independently by exclamation:— Dear me! 
Oh my! Ah me! 

325. A Participle with a noun or pronoun preceding 
it in the Nominative-absolute case, is also independently 
used, the entire expression forming an absolute phrase : 
The sun being risen, we pursued our journey. He having 
paid us, we continued the work. (Exercises 36, 14.) 

326. It is a grammatical idiosyncrasy to make nouns, 
in the nominative— absolute case by direct address, or by 
pleonasm. In either ease the elements mean the same thing 
or the same person. They are equivalent or parallel in their 
uses, and one has the same value as the other. They are 
appositives. 

1. In the examples given, ^^ Alary (you) come to me," 
and ''Gad, a troop shall overcome him," Mary is in apposi- 
tion with you. Gad is in lapposition with him. They are, 
by apposition in the same case. 

2. In the sentence "To be or not to be, that is the 
question," To he or not to te is a substantive. That is a 
noun. They are appositives. They mean the same thing. 
They have the same value, the same use, they axe equiva- 
lents. To he or not to he (is) that, that (is) to he or not 
to he. They are in the same case, that is in apposition 
with io he or not to he, or, supply question after the pro- 
nominal and it would be:— To he or not to he (is) that 
(question), that (question) (is) to he or not to he. 

3. John he shot a bear. John (is) he; he (is) John in 
the structure of this sentence. They mean the same person. 
They are by apposition in the same case. ^^^ lie is in appo- 
sition with John. 

4. The appositive or adjective element is usually the 
one used for emphasis. In use an appositive parallels a 
noun always. 



124 INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS. 

327. Independent Elements are aptly termed attendant 
ant elements. They are parts of the English language 
though independent of any particular use as structural ele- 
ments of a sentence. 



REVIEW EXERCISES 23. 

1. Parse each ivord. 

2. Point out each prepositional or infinitive phrase and 
tell whether it parallels in use a noun, adjective or adverb. 
It must be one of these uses. What does it modify ? 

3. Point out each clause and tell whether it parallels 
in its use a noun, adjective or adverb. It must be one of 
these uses. What does it modify ? 

1. He was fond of books, of pictures, of authors, and of artists. 

2. William Makepeace Thackery was born at Calcutta, in India, 
and at the age of six he was brought to England. 

3. The great work of Goethe's life was "Faust." 

4. Vindicate the ways of God to man. — Pope. 

5. He had worked for his father as a day-laborer. "■' 

6. He was always kind to his brothers and would divide what 
he had with them. 

7. His friend, Dr. More, remonstrated with him. 

8. He, surrounded by friends that loved and honored him, had 
a moderate income. ^' 

9. She, loved and admired, had brilliant prospects before her."'* 
10. He loved to be alone. 

ii. A total cessation of all literary efiort was prescribed for him. 

12. His "Thirty-Years' War" is no ordinary history. "' 

13. He was to be found at his desk at four o'clock in the 
morning. 

14. His father was a captain in the French army. 

15. What I tell you is what he said. 

16. He ran as if he was in a hurry. 

17. The opinion, that he went by way of Liverpool, was wrong.'" 

18. Did you find out what had happened? "** 

19. If I were you I would ask him when he intended to come. 

20. He expects to be educated at Berlin. 



328. SHIFTING USES. 



1. Parallel Uses: — 

1. Shifting uses are alwiays parallel uses. 

2. All modifying elements irrespective of form or 
class, ^^ *^ ^1 ■^^ work in the capacity of nouns, 
adjectives or adverbs. 

2. Sngg-estive : — 

1. Is it subject, object, appositive or possessive? If 
it is, it is either a noun, pronoun, noun-clause or 
noun-phrase. 

2. Does it follow a copulative verb and help say 
something of the subject ? If it does, it parallels 
either a noun attribute or an adjective attribute. 

80 

3. Does it mean the same person or the same thing 
as some other person or thing? If it does, it is 
an appositive and in the same case as the noun 
with which it is in apposition. 

4. Does it modify a noun, pronoun or substantive? 
If it does, it has an adjective use, paralleling an 
adjective. 

(1) To be a Relative adjective clause it miist 
contain one of the four Relative pi-onouns.^"^ 

(2) To be an Appositive adjective clause it must 
be in apposition. ^^^ 

(3) What elements may be adjective elements?-^'*-''' 

5. Does it modify ^a verb, adjective, participle, in- 
finitive or adverb in some sense as to time, place, 

[125] 



126 SHIFTING USES. 

cause, degree, manner, etc., and does it answer 
Why? "When? For what purpose? and similar 
questions of your own making ? If it does, it has 
an adverh use. 

3. A Good Practice sometimes is to reason by exclu- 
sion. Test for the subject, then the attribute. If neither, 
it is narrowed to the objective, appositive or possessive. 
Test for the object. ^'^^ Test for the appositive. 123 125 
Test for the possessive. ^^ ^^ If neither, it is narrowed 
down to an adjective or an adverb use. Then diiferentiate 
between these two. If you see plainly what it is not, decide 
immediately what it is. 

Or, view the whole sentence at once, see it all, and the 
place each element occupies, then classify the uses of each. 
Ask yourself questions (about it, raise difficulties, prove 
your position. Incessant practice is the price of profi- 
ciency. 

329. Solve the following problems in the shifting use 
of words : Classify the italicized words : 

1. All men are better than they seem. 

2. This is our all. 

3. Well, how are you? 

4. The water tvelled from the well. 

5. The boy is -cvell now. 

6. That was well done. 

7. The past rises before me. 

8. She arrived before I did. 

9. We walked before. 

10. They came soon after. 

11. We left offer they came. 

12. The usual fast is observed. 

13. How long did he fast? 

14. The horse is fast. 

15. He trots fast. 

16. Tltat horse is mine. 

17. Think of that. 



SHIFTING USES. 127 

i8. The horse that you saw has good horse sense. 

19. He is worth one hundred dollars. 

20. His worth has been estimated. 

21. Woe worth (be) the day. 

330. When a noun otherwise common distinguishes one 
particularly from another of the same class it shifts to a 
proper noun : The Ridge. The Breakers. The Red Hills.^^ 

331. When a proper noun is used to show each one of 
a class it shifts to a common noun : He is ^a Hercules in 
strength. Where are the An'stotles and Ciceros of today ? ^'^ 

332. Whenever an abstract, collective or verbal noun 
is spelled in the plural it becomes a class noun: ^^ faiths, 
presidencies, elections, 'beauties. 

333. A verb usually transitive shifts to an intransitive 
verb whenever it is desired to leave the object unknown 
and set forth the act only: She studies well. I see. He 
loved. The teacher directs. 

334. A verb usually intransitive shifts to, a transitive 
verb whenever it is used to govern an ^object: He walks 
his horse. She burns the wood. He ran the whole distance. 
She dreamed a dream. 

335. There is no pronoun of the third person, singular 
number, and common gender for either sex in general use 
in our language. The masculine form used in place of it 
is good English : Let each student present his manuscript. 
No objection however to "Let each student present Ids or 
her manuscript." 

336. The word it has several uses: 

1. As subject with a noun clause or noun phrase in 
apposition with it: It is easy to ask questions, ^^s 



128 SHIFTING I'SES. 

2. It is always neuter gender even when the noun attri- 
bute is masculine or feminine : It is a man. It is a woman. 

3. A unipersonal, indefinite or cognate object: He 
footed it to the hills. We heard nothing for it but praise. 
Fight it out. 

4. A unipersonal subject without any appositive modi- 
fier: It is raining. It thunders, ^''o 

5. It may refer to a preceding word : The Society held 
its meeting. 

6. It may haA^e a clause in apposition with it : It is 
certain that he did ii. It is more than we ami believe // he 
did it willfidly. 

337. Idiomatic Forms: They are always a depar- 
ture or shifting use from the usual disposition of elements : 

1. ^Iesecms'=-lt seems to me. 

2. Methinks=I think. 

3. A friend of i!iinc=My friend. 

4. This house of yoMrs'=-Yonr house. "^ 

338. Adverb Phrases:— Many word phrases have 
the use and value of single adverbs, and should usually be 
parsed as such: The better, the more, the best, to count 
up, face to face, over ■with, to go to, over and over, in and 
out, etc. 29" . 

339. Each other, one another are reciprocal adjec- 
tives referring or answering to one another, or they are 
adjective pronouns. ^^7 They help ea«h other. Each is 
nominative case in apposition with tltey, other is objective 
ease, object of help. 

340. Ordinal numerals .«;ometimes sihift to nouns: Two- 
fifths in the bnshel is what he gets. -~'^ 



SHIFTING USES. 129 

341. Like usuially parallels an adjective when com- 
paring nouns, and an adverb when comparing verbs: — 

1. Mary is like her mother. 

2. They ran like horses. 

Like is an adjective attribute in the first sentence, land 
an adverb in the second; and the noun in each case is the 
object of a preposition, unto or to, understood. To obviate 
this confusiom of substituting a preposition call like a pre- 
position at once, and make it and its object la prepositional 
phrase. 238 

342. In such sentences as 

1. They called him good. 

2. They called him judge. 

In the first sentence good modifies him as an adjective 
element ; in the second, judge modifies him as an appositive 
adjective element. ^^^ 

343. Retained object, or object of a verb in the pas- 
sive form: 

1. He was taught to spell. 

2. He was given a pencil 

To spell is the object of was taught; pencil is the object 
of was given. ^^'^ 

344. Some verbs in the passive form parallel copula- 
tive yerbs in use and value, and are copulative verbs : 

1. He was elected mayor. 

2. He was named George. 

Mayor and George are attributes. ^ 

345. Abridgment consists for the most part in short- 
ening a clause by shifting the verb in the clause to a 
participle or infinitive. It is not to be taught, however. 



130 SHIFTING USES. 

that the participle or infinitive has the same use always as 
the clause had before it was changed; neither is every 
participle or infinitive in the English language a sequence 
of abridgment. Furthermore, la verbal shifted to a clause 
use does not prove that the verbal originated from thai 
clause. Abridgment is unsatisfactor}^ and untrustworthy 
in determining the use of elements. 

1. He came that he might assist us=He came to assist us. 

2. An education is tvhat he desircd=An education is to be 
desired. 

3. We heard her u'ho spoke='We heard her (to) speak. 

4. We heard that she spoke=-We heard her (to) speak. 

5. He who is young is active=He being young is active. 

6. What he said is zn'hat he iHeaiit=Saying is meaning. 

7. That one should be sick is dangerous^Being sick is danger- 
ous. 

8. That he should be a man is manly=For hint to be a man 
is manly. 

346. What:- 

1. Indefinite Pronoun,— Bring ivhat he orders. 

2. Interrogative Pronoun, — What did you say? 

3. Interrogative Adjective,— W/m^ place is this? 

4. Interjection,— W/ia^/ you don't say so. 

5. Adverb,— W^a# (partly) with you and the children. 

6. Exclamatory Adjective, — Wlint nonsense! 

347. That:- 

1. Introductory, independent.— Pie said that all is van- 
ity. 

2. Relative Pronoun,— He that is w\se will not do so. 

3. Adjective,— Did you see that light? 

348. When:- 

1. Clause Adverb, — Come, when you are called. 

2. Interrogative Adverb,— WAf» did vou come? 



SHIFTING USES. 131 

349. As:- 

1. Clause Adverb,— Dio as he tells you. 

2. Relative Pronoun,— Take such as he gives you. 

3. Part of Phrase Preposition,— He has decided as to 
that. 

4. Independently between Appositives,— J.5 your broth- 
er, I warn you. 

350. But:- 

1. Substitute for that — not, — There is no one dut 
thiinks=There is no one that does not think. 

2. Conjunction,— He went hut he returned. 

3. Adverb, — We can hut fadl. 

4. Preposition,— All passed hut him. 

351. While:- 

1. Clause Adverb, — He sang- while she played. 

2. Verb,— We whiled away the day. 

3. Noun, — Is it worth while f 

352. Till:- >' 

1. Clause Adverb,— They studied till you came. 

2. Preposition, — They worked till noon. 

Reference Articles : 244 243 283 211 202 20a 204 ise 281 

62 207 298 316 324 



EXERCISES 24. 



John is like his father. 

The teacher saw and directed. ^^ 

He has gone to the Black Hills. 

It is wonderful how the wind blows. 

They love each other. 

He was taught a lesson. 



132 SHIFTING USES. 

7. We heard nothing for it but words of appreciation. 

8. When did you arrive? 

9. He said that all were graduated but one. 
ID. They that are well need not a physician. 

11. He said that he was hungry when he came. 

12. An agreement will be arrived at by Tuesday. 

13. We expect to wait till the train arrives. 

14. Buy what you need. 

15. He was appointed committeeman in our district. 

16. He walked his horse over the bridge. 

17. Take as many as he brings. 

18. Do you think it is worth while? 

19. He says that he understands it now. 

20. They were accused of having seen the figures. 

21. Having spoken to her he passed on. 

22. The resemblance is striking. 

23. She, the perfect picture of a romp, came bounding into 
the room. 

24. He lay paralyzed on a cot. 

25. The doctor's guide, feeling the pulse, is seldom neglected. 

26. There is a habit of looking at the bright side of things. 

27. I found myself unfitted for the position offered me. 

28. The difficulty encountered is the distribution of supplies. 

29. Reading notes is permitted. 

30. Cheerfulness is an excellent working quality, imparting elas- 
ticity to the character. 



EXERCISES 25. 

GENERAL REVIEW: ANTICIPATING COMPLETE 

SENTENCE ANALYSIS. 



1. Review each article in the Working Basis. ^ ^ ^ 

2. Do all modifying elements parallel in their uses either nouns, 
adjectives or adverbs? 

3. What is the subject? Clause subject? Phrase subject? 

4. Can an infinitive or participle be the subject? 

5. How do you reason to determine the subject? "* 

6. Does the same reasoning that determines a noim the subject, 
determine a pronoun, clause or phrase the subject? 

7. What part of speech does a subject clause parallel always? 

71 78 

8. What is a predicate? 

9. Which are complete and incomplete verbs? ^ Why? ** 
ID. What constitutes a predicate? ^ "' °°* 

11. Can an infinitive or participle be a predicate? ^^ ^^ 

12. What parts of speech or elements can be attributes? " ^ 

13. How differentiate between a noun or pronoun attribute and 
and adjective-attribute? ^ 

14. Can a clause or phrase be an attribute? " «« « ^^ « 

15. Can an infinitive or participle be an attribute? 

16. Which of two parts of speech may an attribute phrase paral- 
lel? "' 

17. What part of speech does an attribute clause always paral- 
lel? "" 

18. What parts of speech and other elements can be adjective 
elements? '" ^ 

19. Are appositive elements of whatever class adjective ele- 
ments? ^ 

20. Are relative clauses adjective elements? ^ ^ 

21. When is an element an adjective element? ^ 

22. Can participles and infinitives be adjective elements? 

23. What part of speech does a relative adjective clause para- 
llel? =*« 

[133] 



134 GENERAL REVIEW. 

24. What part of speech does an appositive adjective clause 
parallel? "^ 

25. What part of speech can be an adverbial element? ""^ "* 

26. What is an adverbial clause? ^"^ Adverbial phrase? '"' 

27. What parts of speech or elements do adverbial elements 
modify? ^"^ 

28. Can infinitives and participles be adverbial elements? 

29. What part of speech does an adverb-clause or adverb-phrase 
parallel? '"' "" 

30. Do connected elements ever modifj' each other? "° ^ 

31. Is a noun ever connected to what it modifies? '" 

32. Is a noun-clause ever connected to what it modifies? '" 
S3. Is an adjective ever connected to what it modifies? 

34. Is an adjective-clause ever connected to what it modifies? 

Sn 286 173 184 

35. Is an adverb ever connected to what it modifies? 

36. Is an adverb-clause ever connected to what it modifies ? '" ^ 

37. Tell all you know about ivhen, where, while, as, why. "*" ^ *" 

38. How do you consider shifting use of words? ^ ""' 

39. Give the final disposition of a clause. ^" 

40. Distinguish between direct and indirect objects, and between 
the two classes of indirect objects. What is meant by an adverbial 
objective? To what class does it belong in analysis? "" 

41. Can an infinitive or participle parallel a noun or an adjec- 
tive as attribute? ^" 

42. Is the perfect passive participle often used alone in sen- 
tences? =■"• 

43. Is the verb and participle in the progressive and passive 
forms of verbs ever separated in analysis or parsing? ^' 

44. How determine when a participle following a copulative verb 
is an attribute? °*' 

45. Does a verb in the passive form ever take an object? ""' 

46. Is a verb in the passive form ever copulative in use? '" 

47. What are phrase verbs? Give examples. ^" ^*" 

48. Is a pronoun in the English language ever separated into 
two words? "' 

49. Does any word in a clause sentence ever perform any use 
in a Principal Sentence? 

50. What three pronouns are found only in substantives? "* 

51. Discuss uses of infinitive, participle and prepositional sub- 
stantives. '"' ="" (Exercises 18.) 



GENERAL REVIEW. 135 



52. Discuss the uses of conjunctions. '"'" "'^'' 

53. Give equivalent terms for clause sentences. 
54- Tell all you can about independent elements. 



352. English Grammar is the science of sentence 
structure. 

The Sentence Structure consists of words, clauses and 
phrases arranged according to their uses and meanings. 

By parallelism and comparison we know and prove all 
the uses of the elements of the sentence structure — the 
English language. 

By reference to the dictionary we know and prove all 
the meanings of the words of the sentence structure— the 
English language. In this grammar no attempt is made 
to supplant the standard dictionaries of the English lan- 
gnage. The improper uses of words according to their 
meanings would increase its volume to an enormous size. 
A student who keeps la good dictionary at his elbow and 
uses it will never be called uneducated. It is suggested 
that prepositions, adjectives and adverbs, and in fact, any 
part of speech concerning which there is doubt as to the 
meaning of it, that it be looked up immediately in the 
dictionary. There can be no higher standard. Not one in 
a hundred ever stops to look for the derivation of a word, 
yet he can confidently accept its definition as a result of 
its use by the best writers and scholars of all the lages. Use 
and meaning of words are the only guidance to the em- 
ployment of the language. 

We believe enough sentences have been printed in this 
book to illustrate all positions. We could have printed 
thousands more, but the world is so full of sentences and 
expressions that the teacher or student may take them from 
his own conversation, from books, newspapers, magazines, 



l36 GENERAL REVIEW. 

lectures, etc., in ajbundance, and exercise a healthful drill 
in the employment of the language in doing so. We have 
purposely omitted many definitions, preferring to have the 
student quote his dictionary, in the use of which he should 
be taught to become an adept from the very beginning. 



SENTENCE ANALYSIS COMPLETED.* 



353. The Elements which modify other elements 

are: 

1. Nouns. 

2. Pronouns. 

3. Adjectives. 

4. Adverbs. 

354. The Elements which do not modify other 
elements are: 

1. Verbs. 

2. Prepositions. 

3. Conjunctions. 

4. Interjections. 

355. All Modifying Elements parallel in their uses 
nouns, adjectives or adverbs. 

356. A Sentence is a statement:— He works. 'John 
is cold. 

357. There dan be no sentence without a subject and 
predicate. 

358. The Subject is that of which something is said. 
He works. John is cold, 

359. The Predicate says something of the subject, 
and is always a verb, or verb and attribute: He works. 
'John is cold. 



* In analysis or parsing It is right to supply any element in a 
sentence if It can be determined that It is necessary to the complete 
structure of the sentence. Words or elements omitted are said to be 
understood. 

[137] 



138 SENTENCE ANALYSIS COMPLETED. 

360. The Principal Elements then are the subject 
and the predicate. "^^ ^^ ^^ 

361. The Simple Subject of a .sentence may be: 

1. Noun, '-^•^ Mouiiiains are hilLs. 

2. Pronoun, ^^ jJiQy work. 

3. Clause, "^ Whatever he does prospers. 

4. Phrase, ^^ To err is human. 

362. The Simple Predicate of la sentence may be:— 

1. Verb, ^■^ He loves. 

2. Verb, Progressive form, 211 He is working. 

3. Verb, Passive form, 214 jjp ^..q^^ loved. 

4. Verb, Emphatic form, 214 gj^g ^iQ(,g Jove. 

5. Verb+noTin, 200 He is John. 

6. Verb+pronoun, 200 jt is he. 

7. Verb-|-clause, '^''' Things are ivhat they are. 

8. Verb-f phrase, so To think is to work. 

9. Verb-|-adjective, ^^ Mary seews cokZ. 

363. Equivalent Expressions for the simple sub- 
ject :— 

Grammatical subject. Principal element in the subject. 

Unmodified subject. Principal subject element alone. 

Base of complex subject. Direct subject of the verb. 

364. Equivalent Expressions for the simple predi- 
cate : — 

Grammatical predicate. Principal element in the predicate. 

Unmodified predicate. Principal element alone. 

Base of complex predicate. Verb or verb and attribute. 

365. A Complex Element of whatever cla.ss. is the 
simple element with all of its modifiers. The simple ele- 
ment is called the hase. 

The complex subject is the simple sub.ieet with all of its 
modifiers. 



SENTENCE ANALYSIS COMPLETED. 139 

The complex predicate is tihe simple predicate with all of 
its modifiers. 



EXERCISES 26. 

Point out the simple and the complex elements :- 
I. It flew swiftly. 



They the farmers commenced plowing yesterday. 

We are moving rapidly. 

He who tries generally succeeds. 

To go now is very dangerous. 

That large beautiful white horse performed gracefully. 

The fact is I am learning. 

She did try. 

We might have been studying our lessons. 

What did he say? 



Synthesis:— Make up sentences as follows:— 

1. Noun as subject. 

2. Pronoun as subject. 

3. Clause as subject. 

4. Phrase as subject. 

5. Verb as predicate. 

6. Verb and clause as predicate. 

7. Verb and phrase as predicate. 

8. Verb and adjective as predicate. 

366. There are two classes of sentences: — 

1. Principal Sentences. 

2. Clause Sentences.* 

367. The Principal Sentence makes complete sense 
when stated, either alone or with its modifiers: — 

It may be a simple sentence, — He works. 

It may be a complex sentence,— He who writes works. 



* Reason out the use of a clause the same as you would a single 
part of speech which it always parallels. " 



140 SENTENCE ANALYSIS COMPLETED. 

1. A Simple Sentence is a statement without la modify- 
ing clause:— He works. 

2. A Complex Sentence is a statement modified by a 
clause:— He who writes works. 

368. A Clause Sentence does not make complete sense 
when stated, either alone or with its modifiers: — 

It may be a simple clause sentence, — He who writes 
works. 

It may be a complex clause sentence,— He who thinks 
that he will succeed usually does succeed. 

1. A Simple Clause Sentence is a modifying element, no 
part of which is modified by another clause. He who writes 
works. 

2. A Complex Clause Sentence is a clause sentence mod- 
ified by another clause: She who says that school is ant, 
is mistaken. 

369. A Clause that modifies a part of la Principal sen- 
tence is a dependent clause: — He who teaches works. 

370. A Clause that modifies a part of a Clause sen- 
tence is also a dependent clause, and is aptly termed an 
interdependent clause : — He who teaches that logic is the 
science of science, works. 

371. A Principal Sentence is never complex unless 
some part of it is modified by a clause sentence. 

372. A Clause Sentence is never complex unless 
some part of it is modified by a clause sentence:— They 
who telephoned that they were coming, are here. 

373. A Clause Sentence always parallels in its use 
a noun, adjective or adverb. ^7 



SENTENCE ANALYSIS COMPLETED, 141 

374. The simple clause sentence as a unit, paralleling 
a single part of speech always, is the base, ^^^ any part of 
which modified by a clause makes it a complex clause. 

A Guide to Analyzing a sentence:— 

1. Repeat the sentence, 

2. Is it declaria'tive, imperative or interrogative? 

3. Is it simple or complex? 

4. What is the complex subject? 

5. Name the simple subject 'and give its modifiers. 

6. What is the complex predicate? 

7. Name the simple predicate and give its modifiers. 

8. Name the connectives and independent elements. 

9. If there be a clause sentence as a modifier tell first 
what it modifies as hanging the value of either a noun, ad- 
jective or adverb, and then analyze the clause sentence 
giving its subject, predicate, etc., the same as the principal 
sentence, 

10. If there be a phrase modifier determine the base 
and give its modifiers, or if a noun-phrase it mlay be re- 
garded as having the value of a noun without any further 
divisions of it. However, there is no objection to the dis- 
cussion of each element within the phrase. 

In analyzing Compound sentences, read the whole sen- 
tence and then proceed to analyze eiach member of the com- 
pound sentence. 

In analyzing a paragraph take each sentence of the para- 
graiph separately and analyze it. 

EXERCISES 27. 

1, "He who first taught that the earth is a sphere ivould 
have escaped persecution if they could have disproved his 

statements.' '— 



142 SENTENCE ANALYSIS COMPLETED. 

Sentence ; declarative ; complex. 

He zvho first taught that the earth is a sphere is the complex 
subject. 

He is the simple subject, modified by 

who first taught that the earth is a sphere, a complex adjective 
clause. ^ 

who is the simple subject 

first tatight that the earth is a sphere is the complex predicate 
of the adjective clause. 

taught is the simple predicate modified by 

first a simple adverbial element, and also by 

that the earth is a sphere, a simple objective clause, of which 

the earth is the complex subject. 

earth is the simple subject modified by 

the a simple adjective element. 

is a sphere is the complex predicate, of which 

is sphere is the simple predicate of which 

sphere is the attribute modified by 

a a simple adjective element, 

is is the copula. 

that is independent, 

would have escaped persecution if they could have disproved 
his statements is the complex predicate. 

would have escaped is the simple predicate, modified by 

persecution a simple objective element, and by 

if they could have disproved his statements, a simple adverb- 
clause. 

they is the simple subject. 

could have disproved his statements is the complex predicate of 
the adverb-clause. 

could have disproved is the simple predicate, modified by 

his statements a complex objective element, 

statements is modified by 

his a simple adjective element. 

if is independent, simply introducing the adverb-clause. 

2. That you are pleased is evident: — ^2- 
Sentence, declarative, complex. 

That you are pleased is the subject of the Principal Sentence. 
It is a simple noun-clause, 
you is the simple subject. 



SENTENCE ANALYSIS COMPLETED. 143 

are pleased is the simple predicate. 

is evident is the simple predicate of the Principal sentence. 
evident is the attribute and is is the copula. 
That is independent. 
3. Analyze all the sentences in Article 71. 

CLASSIFICATIONS AS TO USE:- 

375. Principal or Independent Sentences are, ac- 
cording to their uses, conveniently divided into three 



Declarative. 
Imperative. 
Interrogative. 

1. A Declarative Sentence affirms or denies : I am safe. 
I am not safe. 

2. An Imperative Sentence is a command : Be generous. 
Write to us. 

3. An Interrogative Sentence is a question: How are 
you? Who is it? 

376. Clause or Dependent Sentences ^^t g^j-e ac- 
cording to their uses, conveniently divided into three 



Noun-clauses. '^^ 
Adjective-clauses, ^st 
Adverb-clauses, ^oc 

1. A Noun Clause ^^ is one used as :— 

1. Subject. "^0 

2. Attribute. "'^ 

3. Object. i^« 

4. Appositive. ^^o 



144 SENTENCE ANALYSIS COMPLETED. 

2. An Adjective Clause ^^ is one used as:— 
1. Adjective. 

3. A71 Adverbial Clause ^"^ is one used as:— 
1. Adverb. 

By parallelism the classification is extended as follows: 

377. Phrases as to use are: 

(1) Noun-Phrases. "^^ 

(2) Adjective-Phrases. 289 

(3) Adverb-Phrases, sos 

1. A Noun-Phrase ^^ is one used as:— 

1. Subject. "^4 

2. Attribute, so 

3. Object. 108 

4. Appositive. 122 

2. An Adjective-Phrase 20 is one used as an adjective, ^o 

3. An Adverh-Phrase 21 is one used as an adverb. 

378. Parts of Speech as to use are: 

(1) Nouns (equivalent pronoun). 

(2) Adjectives. 

(3) Adverbs. 

1. A Noun-Word (equiv. pronoun) is one used as: — 

1. Subject. 

2. Attribute. 

3. Object. 

4. Appositive. 

2. An Adjective-Word ^^ is one used as an adjective. 

3. An Adverb-Word ■*" is one used as an adverb. 



SENTENCE ANALYSIS COMPLETED. 



145 



Parallelism and Comparison. 



The Clause Sentence. 

1. A clause sentence, though 
a modifier, has a subject and 
predicate, and has subject and 
predicate modifiers. 

2. A clause has the value of 
a single part of speech, — a 
noun, adjective or adverb. 



3. A clause sentence should 
always be analyzed in full in 
completed analysis after giving 
first its use as a unit with the 
value of a single part of 
speech. 



The Phrase. 

I. A phrase never has a 
subject or predicate. 



2. A phrase has the value' 
of a single part of speech, — a 
noun, adjective or adverb. 

If the base of the phrase can 
be clearly determined, classify 
it accordingly and name its 
modifiers. 

3. A wSiibstantive phrase, 
that is, a noun-phrase some- 
times has elements in it that 
do not modify anything and 
yet are inseparably a part of 
it. ^'^ The entire noun-phrase 
should be analyzed and parsed 
as a noun. ^" Rem. 

Each word is often given a 
use based on a clause-sentence 
use which is usually a ques- 
tionable one, because to expand 
or extend the phrase to a 
clause-sentence often changes 
the meaning very materially if 
not entirely. ^" 

Then again, the attribute- 
phrase, if it parallel an adjec- 
tive in its use, should be parsed 
or analyzed as an adjective- 
attribute phrase. ^° 



EXERCISES 28. 

1. My desire is, that you may he happy. ^^~ 
Sentence ; declarative ; complex. 
My desire is the complex subject of the Principal sentence. 



146 SENTENCE ANALYSIS COMPLETED. 

desire is the simple subject modified by 

My a simple adjective element. 

is that you may be happy is the simple predicate of the Principal 
sentence. 

that you may be happy is the attribute. It is a simple noun- 
clause, of which 

you is the simple subject 

may be happy is the simple predicate of the noun-clause. 

happy is the attribute and may be is the copula. 

is is the copula of the Principal sentence. 

that is independent. 

2, Analyze all the sentences in Article 79. 



EXERCISES 29. 

1. We heard what was said. ^^'' 

Sentence; declarative; complex. 
We is the simple subject of the Principal sentence. 
heard what zvas said is the complex predicate of the Principal 
sentence. 

heard is the simple predicate modified by 
zvhat ziias said a simple objective noun-clause, of which 
what is the simple subject of the nounclause and 
was said is the simple predicate of the noun clause. 

2. Analyze the sentences in Article 105, and Exercises 5. 

EXERCISES 30. 

1. TJte belief that he is i}niocent is well founded. ^^~ 

Sentence ; declarative ; complex. 

The belief that he is innocent is the complex subject of the 
Principal sentence. 

belief is the simple subject modified by 

the a simple adjective element, and also by 

that he is innocent a simple appositive adjective clause, of which 

he is the simple subject. 



SENTENCE ANALYSIS COMPLETED. 147 

is innocent is the simple predicate of the noun-clause. 
innocent is the attribute and is is the copula. 

is zvell founded is the complex predicate of the Principal 
sentence. 

is founded is the simple predicate, modified by 
well a simple adverbial element of the first class. 

2. Analyze the sentences in Article 120. 

EXERCISES 31. 

1. Persons who are kind should he honored. ^^'^ 

Sentence; declarative; complex. 

Persons tvho are kind is the comple> subject of the Principal 
sentence. 

Persons is the simple subject modified by 

who are kind a simple relative adjective clause, of which 

who is the simple subject 

are kind is the simple predicate 

kind is the attribute and are is the copula. 

should he honored is the simple predicate of the Principal sen- 
tence. 

2. Analyze the sentences in Article 287. 

EXERCISES 32. 

1. They came when they were called, ^^t 

Sentence ; declarative ; complex. 

They is the simple subject of the Principal sentence. 
came when they were called is the complex predicate. 
came is the simple predicate modified by 
when they were called a simple adverb-clause, of which 
they is the simple subject, 

zcerc called zvhcn is the complex predicate of the adverb-clause, 
of which 

Lvcre called is the simple predicate modified by 
when a simple adverbial element. 

2. Analyze the sentences in Article 306. 



148 SENTENCE ANALYSIS COMPLETED. 

EXERCISES 33.* 

1. Keep in touch with the Working Basis. 

2. Dutline word-elements. ^'^ 

3. Outline clause-elements. ^^ 

4. Outline phrase-elements. ^^ 

5. Compare the transitive verb and preposition. 250 

6. Does a preposition with a clause or phrase as object 
make an element of the Second class? 238 239 

7. She came to where I stood. 

Sentence ; declarative ; complex. 

She is the simple subject of the Principal sentence. ^ 

came to where I stood is the complex predicate. 

came is the simple predicate modified by 

to where she stood a simple adverbial element of the second 
class. 

where she stood is the noun of the base "° a simple noun-clause, 
of which 

she is the simple subject 

stood where is the complex predicate of the noun-clause, of 
which 

stood is the simple predicate modified by 

where a simple adverbial element. 

8. Point out the clause-sentences and tell which clauses 
are simple and which complex:— 

(i) This is the boy who said that she has blue eyes. 

(2) He declares that the amount of reading which is neces- 
sary to keep up with a science is becoming enormous. 

(3) He who thinks that we are retrograding is a pessimist. 



* Use any good system of diagramming you prefer. Alternate be- 
tween oral and written analysis. The author wishes to place special 
stress on oral analysis. 



SENTENCE ANALYSIS COMPLETED. 149 

9. Parse that. 

10. Parse tiie relative pronoiuis. 

11. Parse km, is becoming and enormous. 

12. In "w'liat case is eyes, reading, science, and pessimist? 
Analyze sentences 4, 6 and 8, Exercises 17. 

379. Compound Elements. 

There is an expression referring to elements and to sen- 
tences tbat needs further attention, perhaps, called Oom- 
pound. 

380. A Compound Element is two or more elements 
performing a like office, or parallel use, in the structure of 
a sentence. ^^^ 

1. The elements of which ia compound element is made 
up are members of that element: He and I are brothers, — 
he is the first member and I is the second member of the 
compound subject. 

2. When two or more clause sentences ^^^^ aire joined by 
a conjunction, it is a oompound element since they are 
always within the structure of a Principal or independent 
sentence. 

3. To determine a compound element reason first as if 
there were no compound elements in existence ; that is, test 
for any element as usual, and to the one that fills that use 
any other elements of a parallel use will be found joined 
by a conjunction expressed or understood. 

EXERCISES 34. 

Point out the compound elements:— 
I. John, Philip, Andrew, Mary and Jane are fishing. (Who 
are fishing?) 



150 SENTENCE ANALYSIS COMPLETED. 



9 
10. 
II 

not tell 



They wash, iron, cook, eat, sleep and drink. 

He was old, infirm, wrinkled and gray. 

We saw tigers, eagles, monkeys and bears. 

Unusual and infrequent noises were heard. 

She writes rapidly and legibly. 

I know where he lives and where he sleeps. (/ know what?) 

He will come when the bell rings or when he is called. 

To be or not to be is the question. 

He spoke of success and of failure. 

Whether he was in earnest or whether he was joking, I can 



381. A Compound Sentence is two or more Princi- 
pal or independent sentences ^ee joined by conjunctions. 

1. The independent sentences of which la compound sen- 
tence is made up are members of that sentence : — 

"We fell into the water and they laugihed,— We fell into 
the water is the first member and they laughed is the second 
member of the compound sentence. 

2. Tell whether each member of a compound sentence is 
declarative, imperative or interrogative, and whether a sim- 
ple or complex member, instead of trying to classify the 
whole compound sentence. 

By this method it will often be noticed that one member 
of a compound sentence may be simple while another mem- 
ber is complex in the same sentence. 

EXERCISES 35. 

1. Name the members of each compound sentence. 

2. Analyze fully each member: — 

1. Columbus discovered America and De Soto discovered the 
Mississippi. 

2. The box was found but the table was bought. 

3. He is honest and kind and he is handsome. 

4. He works for me and he does his work well. 

5. Time is a sacred gift and each day is a little life. 



SENTENCE ANALYSIS COMPLETED. 151 

6. He is riding in a wagon ; he will come by and by. 

7. I must not indulge myself in more quotations, yet it is 
difficult to stop. 

8. We love our friends who love us and we believe that what 
they tell us is true. 

382. For General Work: — 

1. He hopes to be educated. 

2. It is good for us to be here. 

3. He gave his consent to have the operation tomorrow. 

4. It is but just to tell you. 

5. She spoke now and then. 

6. The work must be done either now or never. 

7. Grammar teaches principles as well as facts. 

8. We selected our instruments and paraphernalia. 

9. She sang sweetly and joyfully. 

10. He realizes that you have come. 

11. Did you see such things as you like? 

12. The belief is that he will regain his health. 

13. If you told me, I have forgotten what it is. 

14. We stopped to see the procession go by. 

15. Whoever comes will be treated well. 

16. They named him Fred. 

17. I myself told it to you. 

18. Who is this man of Salem? 

19. She was to appear masked. 

20. What he gave is not known. 

21. She spoke of what you said. 

22. A person who is good is kind. 

23. I must have been asleep when the news came. 

24. The fact is I was napping. 

25. He expects you to speak to him. 

26. He repeated it over and over. 

27. Which horse did he say he had sold? 

28. We saw a man running to overtake the car. 

29. The m.edicine is to be given at five o'clock. 

30. The direction to rest was not obeyed. 

31. The patient is well enough to sit up. 

32. She desired to be taught music. 
:iT,- He was refused a certificate. 
34. She was taught to walk. 



152 SENTENCE ANALYSIS COMPLETED. 

35. The work will be accomplished if you request that it should 
be done. 

36. Those who are devoted to learning are not usually fond of 
society. 

2,7- He believes that he can accomplish the work which was 
assigned to him. 

38. He remembered the direction, Take a teaspoonful every 
hour. 

39. She was so excited that she could scarcely talk. 

40. The question is when will he come. 

41. The place where she lives is many miles from here. 

42. The idea that you should believe such a report is ridiculous. 

43. Was it right for me to come? 

44. No one thought it to be wrong. 

45. He might have been studying his lesson instead of writing 
letters. 

46. Having been practicing all his life he had become an expert. 

47. He was to have been working before sunrise. 

48. As we walked in front of the house, he spoke in regard to 
the music. ^ 

49. He who fears being conquered in sure of defeat. 

50. Having been permitted to take what he desired he was happy. 

51. It was too dark to see how to find our way. 

52. "It is for you" she exclaimed, holding out the envelope. 

53. They said that they preferred to see him. 

54. He who said that three-fifths of fifteen is nine, was right. *" 

55. He says that man is a social being and that the precept. 
Love your neighbor as yourself, is imprinted in his constitution. 

56. The rude sea grew civil at her song, 

And certain stars shot madly from their spheres 
To hear the Sea-maid's music. — Shakespeare. 

57. To me the meanest flower that blows can give 

Thoughts that do often lie too deep for tears. — Wordsworth. 

58. The woods were filled so full with song 

There seemed no room for sense of wrong. — Tennyson. 

59. From peak to peak, the rattling crags among 
Leaps the live thunder. — Szvmburne. 

60. On our view the beautiful lights of heaven 
Dawned through a circular opening in the cave, 
Thence issuing, we again beheld the stars. — Dante. 



SENTENCE ANALYSIS COMPLETED. 153 

6i. The mind is its own place, and in itself 

Can make a Heaven of Hell, a Hell of Heaven. — Milton. 

62. A word too much, or a kiss too long, 

And the world is never the same again. — Bacon. 

63. Look round the habitable world, how few 

Know their own good, or, knowing it, pursue. — Dryden. 

64. The angels that live with them, and are weaving 
Laurels of life for their youthful brows, 

Are toil, and truth, and mutual faith. — Emerson. 

65. Truth is the highest thing that n\an may keep. — Chaucer. 
77. Life, like a dome of many colored glass. 

Stains the white radiance of Eternity, 

Until death tramples it to fragments. — Shelley. 

88. Man has three treasures, — love and light 

And calm thoughts, regular as infants' breath; 

And three firm friends, more sure than day and night, 

Himself, his Maker, and the Angel Death. — Coleridge. 

89. There is no death. What seems so is transition; 
This life of mortal breath 

Is but a suburb of the life elysian, 
Whose portal we call death. — Longfellozv. 
go. O death, where is thy sting? 

grave, where is thy victory? — St. Paul. 

91. The boast of heraldry, the pomp of pow'r. 
And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, 
Await alike th' inevitable hour. 

The paths of glory lead but to the grave. — Gray. 

92. The gloomy night is gathering fast, 
Loud roars the wild inconstant blast; 
Yon murky cloud is foul with rain, — 

1 see it driving o'er the plain; 
The hunter now has left the moor, 
The scattered coveys meet secure; 
While here I wander, pressed with care, 
Along the lonely banks of Ayr. — Burns. 

93. Tis midnight : on the mountains brown 
The cold, round moon shines deeply down 
Blue roll the waters, blue the sky 
Spreads like an ocean hung on high. 



154 SENTENCE ANALYSIS COMPLETED. 

Bespangled with those isles of light, 
So widely, spiritually bright ; 
Whoever gazed upon them shining, 
And turned to earth without repining, 
Nor wished for wings to flee away, 
And mix with their eternal ray? — Byron. 

EXERCISES 36. 

1. We saw the apple fall. {We saw ivhat?) 

Sentence ; declarative ; simple. 

We is the simple subject. 

smu the apple fall is the complex predicate. 

saw is the simple predicate modified by 

the apple fall a simple objective noiin-phrase. '" Rem. Within 
the structure of the noun-phrase, 

apple is modified by 

the a simple adjective element of the first class and by 

to fall a simple adjective element of the second class. 

Remark : — Sometimes in this class of noun phrases try if a 
present participle will precede the noun and make the same sense: — 
We saw the falling apple. 

2. My desire is for him to he educated. 

Sentence ; declarative ; simple. 

My desire is the complex subject, 

desire is the simple subject, modified by 

my an adjective element. 

is for him to be educated is the complex predicate, of which 

for him to he educated is the attribute and is is the copula. 

The attribute is a noiin-phrasc. ""^ Rem. 

Within the structure of the noun-phrase. 

for him has no antecedent term of relation 

him is modified by 

to he educated an adjective element of the second class. 

3. His being a physician prevented his election. {What 
prevented his election?) 

His being a physician is the simple subject. It is a noun-phrase, 
prevented his election is the complex predicate. 



SENTENCE ANALYSIS COMPLETED. 155 

prevented is the simple predicate modified by 

his election a complex objective element, of which 

election is the base modified by 

his a simple adjective element of the first class. 

Within the noun-phrase 

being is a passive participle modified by 

his an adjective element. 

physician is a noun attribute modified by 

a, a simple adjective element. "°^ 

4. She is to he educated, ^ei 

She is the subject. 

is to be educated is the predicate. 

to be educated is the attribute and is is the copula. 

5. Having accumulated a l<irge fortune lie retired from, 
husiness. 

he having accumulated a large fortune is the complex subject. 
he is the simple subject modified by 

having accumulated a large fortune a complex adjective ele- 
ment, of which 

having accumulated is the base modified by 

a large fortune a complex objective element, of which 

fortune is the base modified by 

a and large, two adjective elements. 

retired from business is the complex predicate, 

retired is the simple predicate modified by 

from business, an adverbial element of the second class. 

6. He shouted "Who are you?" 

Sentence; declarative; complex. 

He is the simple subject. 

shouted "Who are you?" is the complex predicate. 

shouted is the simple predicate modified by 

"Who are you?" a simple objective sentence, "' of which 

you is the simple subject, 

are who is the simple predicate, 

who is the attribute and are is the copula. 



1S6 SENTENCE ANALYSIS COMPLETED. 

7. No one thought it to he wrong. 

No one is the complex subject. 

one is the simple subject modified by '*° 

no a simple adjective element. 

thought it to be zvrong is the complex predicate, 

thought is the simple predicate modified by 

it to he zvrong an objective element— a noun-phrase. 

Within the structure of the substantive "'" it is modified by to be 
wrong an adjective element, but zvrong does not modify anything 
being an adjective attribute. 

8. The man was seen to strike. 

The man to strike is the complex subject. 

matt is the simple subject modified by 

the a simple adjective element of the first class, and also by 

to strike a simple adjective element of the second class. 

was seen is the simple predicate unmodified. 

If to strike remain in the predicate following the passive verb 
^ it may be analyzed as the attribute and zms seen the copula ; but 
usually the infinitive modifying the object of the transitive active 
verb also modifies the subject of the transitive passive verb. They 
saw the man strike. In this form to strike modifies man. 

9. TJiey saw the man strike. 

They is the simple subject. 

saw the jnan to strike is the complex predicate. 

saw is the simple predicate modified by 

the man to strike an objective element — a noun-phrase. 

man is modified by 

the an adjective element and also by 

to strike an adjective element of the second class. 

10. For him to do that seems wrong. 

For him to do that is the simple subject, — a noun-phrase. 

seems wrong is the simple predicate, of which 

wrong is the attribute and seems is the copula. 

Within the structure of the noun-phrase for introduces it, him 
is the objective form modified by to do, and to do is modified by 
that an objective element. 



SENTENCE ANALYSIS COMPLETED. 157 

11. Gore is the city upon the hill. 

Gore is the simple subject. 

is the city upon the hill is the complex predicate. 
is city is the simple predicate, 
is the copula and city is the attribute modified by 
the an adjective element, and also by 

upon the hill, a complex adjective element of the second class, — 
prepositional phrase, of which 
upon hill is the base, hill the noun of the base is modified by 
the a simple adjective element. 



12. We saw him (to) go. 

We is the simple subject. 

saw him to go is the complex predicate. 

saw is the simple predicate modified by 

him to go an objective element, — a noun-phrase. 

Within the structure of the substantive him is modified by to go 
an adjective element of the second class. Him is to be regarded as 
the base of the noun-phrase. 



13. The physician thought his pulse to he increased in 
frequency. 

The physician is the complex subject. 

physician is the simple subject modified by 

the an adjective element. 

thought his pulse to he increased in frequency is the complex 
predicate. 

thought is the simple predicate modified by 

his pulse to be increased in frequency an objective element, — 
a noun-phrase. 

Within the structure of the noun-phrase or substantive 

pulse is modified by 

his a simple adjective element, and by 

to be increased in frequency, a complex adjective element of the 
second class, of which 

to be increased is modified by 

in frequency, an adverbial element of the second class. 



158 SENTENCE ANALYSIS COMPLETED, 

14. Their intention to escape was not knonm. 

Their intention to escape is the complex subject. 

intention is the simple subject modified by 

their an adjective element of the first class and by 

to escape an appositive adjective element of the second class. 

zvas not known is the complex predicate, 

zvas known is the simple predicate modified by 

)iot, a simple adverbial element of the first class. 

15. Have you sold that house of fatlicr's? 

Sentence ; interrogative ; simple. 

You is the simple subject. 

have sold that house of father's is the complex predicate. 

have sold is the simple predicate modified by 

that house of father's a complex objective element, of which 

house is the base modified by 

that, a simple adjective element of the first class and by of fath- 
er's a simple adjective element of the second class. The possessive, 
father's, is redundant and should be parsed as possessive form but in 
use an object and in the objective case governed by the preposition 
of. 

Such expressions as "that boy of Smith's," "this horse of ours,"' 
etc., express the possessive relation twice and are called '^double 
possessives." "^ 

16. He having paid ns, we continued the work. 

Sentence ; declarative ; simple. 

JVe is the simple subject. 

continued the zvork he having paid us is the complex predicate, 
of virhich 

continued is the simple predicate modified by 

the ivork a complex objective element of the first class. 

work is the base modified by 

the a simple adjective element of the first class. 

continued is also modified by the absolute phrase 

he having paid ns equivalent to zvhcJi he liad paid us. a simple 
adverb clause. 

Within the structure of the absolute phrase itself he is neither 
subject, attribute, object, appositive nor possessive. Its only use is 



SENTENCE ANALYSIS COMPLETED. 159 

with the participle having paid, and for that reason it is parsed as 
being in the absolute case; having paid modifies he; the object of 
having paid is us. The absolute phrase is really an element of the 
predicate but in a non-predicate foim, and in use, in analysis, it is 
a part of the predicate. ^^^ 

17. I hnotv where lie lives and where he sleeps. 

Sentence ; declarative ; complex. 

/ is the simple subject. 

know zvhere he lives and where he steeps is the complex predi- 
cate. 

know is the simple predicate modified by 

where he lives and inhere he sleeps a simple compound objec- 
tive element, of which 

where he lives is the first member of the compound element. 

It is a simple noun clause of which 

he is the subject, 

lives where is the complex predicate, 

lives is the simple predicate modified by 

where a simple adverbial element. 

Where he sleeps is the second member of the compound ele- 
ment. It is a noun clause of which 

he \?, the subject 

sleeps zvhere is the complex predicate 

sleeps is the simple predicate modified by 

zvhere a simple adverbial element. 

and is the connective. It connects the members of the com- 
pound objective element. '*° 

18. We love our friends who love us, and we believe 
that what they tell us is true. 

Sentence ; compound ; each member is declarative. "*^ 

We love our friends zuho love us is the first member. It is 
complex. 

We is the simple subject. 

loz'c our friends zvho love us is the complex predicate. 

love is the simple predicate modified by 

our friends ■rvho love us, a simple objective element of the first 
class, of which 



160 SENTENCE ANALYSIS COMPLETED. 

friends is the base modified by 

our a simple adjective element and also by 

who love us, a simple adjective element of the third class. 

It is a relative adjective clause, of virhich 

we is the subject, 

love us is the complex predicate, 

love is the simple predicate modified by 

us a simple objective element. 

We believe that what they tell us is true, is the second member. 
It is complex. 

We is the simple subject. 

believe that what they tell us is true is the complex predicate. 

believe is the simple predicate modified by 
that what they tell us is true, a complex objective element of the 
third class. It is a noun clause, of which 

what they tell (to) us is the subject and 

is true is the predicate. 

true is the attribute and is is the copula. 

what they tell (to) us is the subject of the objective noun 
clause, of which 

they is the simple subject, 

tell what (to) us is the complex predicate. 

tell is the simple predicate modified by 

what a simple objective element "* and also by 

(to) us a simple adverbial element of the second class. 

and connects the two members of the compound sentence. 

that is independent, simply introducing the objective clause. 

383. False Syntax is the violation of proper sentence 
structure and results from an improper use of elements ^ ^^ 
in the structure of sentences. The student who under- 
stands the uses of elements in '& sentence and how to make 
the best use of a dictionary has the means at his command 
to correct faulty constructions, or false syntax. Use and 
not form determines what part of speech a word is. Make 
the form correspond to the use, otherwise regard the form, 
if it has to remain as an idiom, but preserve the use ac- 
cording to the highest tests of proof. Consult the entire 
working basis, especially 40, 41, 42. To correct false 



SENTENCE ANALYSIS COMPLETED. 161 

syntax apply a correct knowledge of the uses of elements 
independent of fonn. Be guided by the form of an ele- 
ment only when you know the use of that element. ^^^ ^^^ 
Exercise 36 ^^. 



Helpful Statement. 

Students should learn to know the value of an index 
and how to use it. 



INDEX. 



A, AN, 87, 102. 

Abridgment, 129. 

Abstract nouns, 15, 40. 

Active verbs, 60. 

Adjective attributes, 8, 9, 96. 

Adjective clause, 8, 54, 105, 143, 

144. 
Adjective elements, 11, 12, 34, 

54, loi, 104, 129. 
Adjective noun, 56. 
Adjective participle, 9, 92, 95. 
Adjective phrase, 9, 105, 106, 

112, 113, 114, 128. 
Adjective pronoun, 56. 
Adjectives, 7, 8, 22. 97. 
Adjective word, 144. 
Adverb clause, 8, 112, 113, 143, 

144. 
Adverb participle, 9, 95, 96. 
Adverb phrase, 9, 112, 113, 114, 

128. 
Adverbs, 7, 8, 88, 97, 108, 112, 

118, 122. 
Adverb word, 144. 
Adverbial elements, 11, 12, 113, 

114. 
Adverbial objectives, 88. 
Agreeement, 51, 83. 
Analysis, 135, 137, 151. 
Antecedent, 46, 49, 54. 
Appositive, 7, 31, 34, ^8, m, 123, 

125, 143, 144- 
Appositive clause, 32, 104. 
Appositive element, 31, S3- 
Appositive phrase, 33. 
Attendant element, 124. 
Attribute, 7, 17, 37, 49, 51, 92, 

143, 144- 
Attribute clause, 21, 22. 
Attribute phrase, 22, 23, 145. 
Auxiliary verbs, 68. 
As, 122, 133. 



BE, 17, 69, 90, 93. 
But, 131. 

CASE, 13, 46. 

Class noun, 14, 15, 40, 127. 
Classes of sentences, 139. 
Clause, 9, 18, 38, 41, 112, 125. 
Clause adverb, 112. 
Clause sentence, 140, 145. 
Collective noun, 15, 40. 
Common form, 69, 71. 
Common gender, 13, 39. 
Common noun, 14, 127. 
Comparison of adjectives, 102; 

of adverbs, 109. 
Complete verb, 11, 59, 61. 
Complex clause-sentence, 140. 
Complex element, 138. 
Complex predicate, 139. 
Complex sentence, 139, 140. 
Complex subject, 138. 
Compound element, 117, 149. 
Compound sentence, 117, 150. 
Conjugation, 75. 
Conjunction, 10, 116. 
Conjunctive adverb, iii. 
Connected elements, 116. 
Connective, 112. 
Construction, 9. 
Coordinating use, 116. 
Copulative verb, 10, 11, 17, 58. 

59, 61, 129. 



DECLARATIVE SENTENCE, 

143- 
Declension, 10, 43, 47. 
Defective verbs, 68. 
Definitive adjective, 56, 102. 
Definitions omitted, 136. 
Dependent clause, 140. 
Dependent sentence, 143. 



[163; 



164 



Descriptive adjective, loi. 
Dictionary, 135. 
Do, 68, 69. 

EACH OTHER, 128. 

English grammar, 135. 

Emphatic form, 69, 82. 

Emphatic pronoun, 49. 

Equivalent forms and expres- 
sions of subject clause, 18; of 
subject phrase, 19; of attribute 
clause, 22 ; of attribute phrase, 
24; of objective clause, 29; of 
objective phrase, 30; of ap- 
positive clause, 32; of apposi- 
tive phrase, 23 ! of copulative 
verb, 61 ; of relative clause, 
104; of adjective phrase, 106; 
of an adverb clause, 112; of 
adverb phrase, 113; of simple 
subject, of simple predicate, 
138. 

Exclamatory adjectives, 103. 



FALSE SYNTAX, 160. 
Eeminine gender, 13, 39. 
Eirst person, 14, 41. 
Eoreign plurals, 43. 
Eorms, 46, 61. 
Function, 9. 

GENDER, 13, 39, 40, 127. 
General review, 138. 
General work, 151. 
Gerund, 97. 
Government, 60. 
Guide to analysis, 141. 

IDIOMS, 26, 48, 128. 
Idiosyncrasy, 123. 
Imperative mode, 72, yy, 79. 
Imperative sentence, 143. 
Indefinite pronoun, 46, 52, 55. 
Independent elements, 121. 
Independent sentence, 143. 
Indicative mode, 71, 75, 78. 
Indirect object, 87. 88. 
Infinitives, 15, 90, 95, 122. 
Inflection, 10. 



Interjection, 10, 121. 
Interrogative adjective. 103. 
Interrogative adverb. 109. 
Interrogative form, 82. 
Interrogative pronoun, 46, 50, 55. 
Interrogative sentence, 143. 
Interdependent clause, 140. 

Intransitive verb, 10. 58, 61, 

127. 
Introductory elements, 118. 
Irregular verb, 59. 
It, 26, 127, 128. 

LIKE, 129. 

MASCULINE GENDER, 13, 39. 

Meaning, 135. 

Members, 149, 150. 

Mode, 70. 

Modifying elements, 7. 9. 137. 

NEITHER, NOR, 118. 
Neuter gender, 13, 39. 
Xeuter infinitive, 92. 
Neuter participle, 92. 
Nominative-absolute case, 122. 
Nominative case, 13, 16, 17, 48. 
Nominative clause, 18. 
Nominative phrase, 19. 
Noun, 7, 8, 13, 14, 20, 22, 28. 29, 

32, 33, 36, 44, 46, 97. 
Noun attribute, 8, 9, 96. 
Noun clause, 7, 8, 13, 36, 44. 143. 
Noun participle. 7, 8, g, 90. 92. 
Noun phrase. 7. 8. 13. 36, 100. 

145- 
Number 14. 
Numeral adjectives. 102. 128. 

OBJECT, 7. 28, 37, 58, 86, 143. 

144- 
Objective case, 13, 27. 
Objective clause, 28. 
Objective element, 11. 12, 87. 
Obective phrase, 29. 
Office, 9. 

PARSING, 44. 

Participial adjective, 96. loi. 



165 



Participial adverb, 96. 
Participles, 28, 62, 90, 94, 95, 

122, 123. 
Parts of sentences, 10. 
Parts of speech, 7, 144. 
Parts of speech elements, 11. 
Passive form, 61, 69, 81, 91, 92. 
Perfect participle, 90, 92, 94. 
Person, 14, 41. 
Personal pronouns, 46, 47. 
Personified nouns, 40. 
Phrase, 9, 19, 41, 145. 
Phrase preposition, 87. 
Phrase verb, 61, 62. 
I'lural number, 14, 41. 
Plurals, 42. 
Possessive, 7, 13. 
Possessive attribute, 49. 
Possessive case, 13, 25, 32. 
Potential mode, 72, 76, 79. 
Predicate, 16, 21, 58, 61, 137, 138. 
Predicate adjective, 24, loi. 
Predicate elements, 11, 12. 
Preposition, 10, 28, 86, 88. 
Prepositional phrase, 28, 86, 122. 
Present participle, 90, 93. 
Principal elements, 11, 58, 98, 138 
Principal parts of verbs, 62. 
Principal sentence, 139, 140, 143. 
Progressive form, 69, 72, 81, 91. 
Pronouns, 7, 13, 46. 
Proper noun, 14, 127. 

REASONING, by exclusion, 125. 
Redundant adjective, 103. 
Redundant verb, 68. 
Reflexive pronoun, 49. 
Relative adverb, no. 
Relative adjective clause, iii. 
Relative clause, 54, 104. 
Relative pronoun, 46, 53, 55. 
Regular verb, 58. 
Retained attribute, 93. 
Retained object, 129. 



SECOND PERSON, 14, 41. 

Sentence, 137. 
Sentence structure, 135. 
Shifting use, 9, 125. 
Simple clause sentence, 140. 
Simple sentence, 139, 140. 
Singular number, 14, 41. 
Subect, 7, 16, 20, 36, 83, 137, 138, 

143, 144- 
Subject clause, 18, 19. 
Subject element, 11, 12. 
Subject phrase, 19, 23. 
Subjunctive mode, 73, 77, 79. 
Subordinate element, 11, 12. 
Substantive, 9, 93, 94, 100. 
Synopsis, 75, 80, 81. 

TENSE, 71, 72, 73, 74. 

Tests for subject, 20; for ob- 
ject, 30; for appositive, 34; 
for adverb, 108. 
That, 130. 
The, 102, 109. 
Third person, 14, 41. 

Till, 131. 

Transitive verb, 10, 28, 58, 60, 
91, 127. 

T)-pical conjunctions, 118. 

UNIPERSONAL VERB, 68. 

Unmodifying elements, 10. 
Use, 9, 135. 

VERB, 10, 58, 59, 88, 94. 
Verbal noun, 15, 40, 96. 
Verbals, 9, 15, 90, 97. 
Voice, 60. 

WHAT, 130. 

IVheu, III, 112, 122, 130. 

IV here, in, 112, 122. 

]\lnle, 131. 

Working basis, 7. 



SUI.3SW10 



One copy del. to Cat. Div. 
iUi. 25 ***« 



